Transcript Brand Wessels

Subject matter to be covered…
1. Mathematics and Study
Methods
2. Human Performance
3. Meteorology
4. Aircraft Technical and General
5. Radio Aids
6. Instruments
7. Law and Procedures
8. Flight Planning
9. Navigation and Plotting
CPL/ATP – Ground
School Overview…
What else….
 200
hours total flying time
 100 hours Pilot-in-Command
 50 hours Cross-country flying
 10 hours night flying
 IF Rating (40 hours single engine
and 50 hours twin engine)
Your course facilitator
for this Ground
School…
Brand Wessels
Cell: 073-591 3907
Email: [email protected]
Student
Commentary…
Comments received from Jason Alexander
(CPL course):
Cellphone:
 “Excellent all round knowledge –
explanations simple and easy to
understand”
 “Very helpful methodologies”
 “Would recommend it to anyone”
Student
Commentary…
Frans Pretorius
Cellphone: 072-252 8832
Comments received from
Frans(CPL): “Very
entertaining, no spoon feeding
here, worth it and money well
spent, great tempo and passed 6
subjects in one sitting… ”
Student
Commentary…
Tjaart Janse van Rensburg
Cellphone: 083-240 7614
Comments received from
Tjaart(CPL): “Great results,
very comprehensive, learnt a
hell of a lot, very satisfied.”
Student
Commentary…
Ruan van Vuren
Cellphone: 072-179 6902
Comments received from
Ruan(CPL): “Very
educational, well worth it, much
better than comparable courses
I tried…”
Student
Commentary…
Comments received from Sean Kenny
(ATP course):
“Great pace, good discussion”
 “Well informed on subject matter”
 “Excellent communication process”
 “Great course – thank you very much!”

Student
Commentary…
Comments received from Martin van
Eeden (ATP course):
“So I was not the only student
struggling….”
 “Application focused – helped me a lot.”
 “Good people skills by facilitator.”
 “Arranged in such a way that we could
learn from each other.”

Course
Highlights….
Trigonometry
Some triangles do not always have a 90º angle, therefore the
normal trig functions do not always apply. The following formula is
used to solve the RNAV questions.
The COSINE Rule :
Mathematic
Review…..
a² = b² + c² - 2bc x COS A
b² = a² + c² - 2ac x COS B
c² = a² + b² - 2ab x COS C
The SIN Rule :
=
=
SIN A
c
b
a
SIN B
SIN C
The Right Angled
Triangle
Trigonometric
functions are
commonly defined
as ratios of two
sides of a right
triangle containing
the angle
Example:
At 1205, aircraft A and B are 75 nm's apart
and are on a collision course. Aircraft A
330 Kts. Aircraft B 360 Kts. The relative
bearing from A to B is 075. What angle
needs to be closed by aircraft B to
intercept aircraft A?
SIN B
=
SIN B
=
SIN B
=
B =
0.885
62.3º
An Equation is like a balance
scale. Everything must be
equal on both sides.
=
10
5+5
Cross Multiplication
Moving the variable around in a function, until the
unknown variable is isolated.
Example:
In
a² = b² + c², if we have to
c
solve for we have to isolate it on one side of the
equal sign.
Important: What you do on one side of the equation
has to be done on the other side.
a² = b² + c² - b² leaves c² isolated,
but then we have to subtract b² on the left side of the
Thus:
equation as well:
a² - b² = c²
Percents Have Equivalents in
Decimals and Fractions
Percent
Fraction
Decimal Fraction Simplified
1
20
20% = .20 = 100 = 5
Included %
When asked to work out the % of reserve fuel when it’s already included
in the total given, care must be taken with the mathematics:
Example:
We have 11 500 Lt of fuel which include 15% reserve – how much fuel
do we have available without using the reserve fuel?
If we started with 10 000 Lt and then had to add 15% reserve it means:
10 000 x 15% = 1500 + 10 000 = 11 500 Lt total fuel.
To reverse the calculation (how much fuel do we have without the 15%),
we have to divide the total with 1.15.
Or 11 500 ÷ 1.15 = 10 000 Lt
Interpolation:
1. to insert between or among
others
2. to change by putting in new
material
3. to estimate a missing value
by taking an average of
known values at neighboring
points
Interpolate one series at a time:
PALT
14 000
AUW 12 000 LBS
1237
AUW 10 750 LBS
AUW 10 000 LBS
15 500 16 000
1260
1169
1098
1115
1268
1268 – 1237 = 31/2000
X 1500 = 2,25 (+1237)
1260=– 1260
1115 = 124/2000 X
750 = 54,37 (+1115)
= 1169
1120
1120 – 1098 = 22/2000
X 1500 = 16,5 (+1098)
= 1114.5
Two aircraft flying at the same Flight Level, Aircraft A has a Mach
Number of 0.815 and a TAS of 500 Knots, Aircraft B has a Mach
Number of 0.76. At what Flight Level are the aircraft flying and
what is the TAS of aircraft B?
MachNumber 
TAS
LSS
LSS  613.5 Knots
LSS  38.945 coat  273
613.5  38.945 coat  273
613.5

38.945
coat  273
15.75 
coat  273
15.75 2  coat  273
248.06  coat  273
248.06  273  coat
coat   24.9
1 In 60 Rule.
A VOR DME defines the centre of an airway 10 Nautical Miles
wide. An aircraft at distance 180 Nautical Miles has a two dot fly
right indication on a 5 dot CDI. What is the distance from the
airway?.
Distance Off
Track Error
4°
60
720
60
=
Distance Off
60
180 NM
= Distance Off
=
=
Distance To Go
A ) Distance from centre = 12 NM
B ) Distance from boundary = 7 NM
12 NM
5 Nautical Miles
5 Nautical Miles
180 NM
4°
GGV
DME Calculations.
An aircraft at FL 410 has a DME range of 14 NM. What is the ground range
From the DME station.
The maximum error is when the
aircraft is close to the DME and
high altitude.
A
( 14 ) ²
=
196
=
B
=
( 41000 \ 6080 ) ²
45.468 +
12.269 NM
FL410.
C
Using Pythagoras
C² = A² + B²
Ground Range.
B
VOR DME JSV.
+ B²
B²
Problem Solving is easy if you
follow these steps
Understand
the
problem
Step 1 – Understand the
problem
 Read
the problem carefully.
 Find the important information.
 Write down the numbers.
 Identify what the problem wants
you to solve.
 Ask if your answer is going to be
a larger or smaller number
compared to what you already
know.
Step 2 - Decide how you’re
going to solve the problem
Choose a method
Use a graph
Write an equation
Find a pattern
Use reasoning
Make a table
Use formulas
Make a list
Work backwards
Draw a picture
Act it out
Step 3 - Solve the
problem
Example:
TAS
MachNumber 
LSS
Step 4 - Look Back & Check
Reread the problem
Substitute your new number
Did your new number work?
Trig Example: You are taking off from a
runway, with a hill 300’ high, 6000’ from
the threshold. What angle of climb must
you maintain to clear the hill?
tan x = y/x
Push this button just
you choose a 2nd
And y=300’ before
and x=6000’
function button
Tan x = 0.05
Inverse
Force
of 3(or cot, or
Divide byButton
tan same as
inverse
tanˉ¹)
Force of 2
Thus x = 2,86º
10 to the
force …
Square
Root
Brackets
Degree, minutes,
seconds – also
hours, minutes,
seconds
% Button
Know your
calculator!
Study Methods
Mind Maps
 Memory Training
 How to create Summaries
 Time Management
 Study Tips
 Habits to Acquire

Mind Mapping….
Study Methods
The 7 Habits of Highly
Effective People
Habit 1: Be Proactive
Habit 2: Begin with the End in Mind
Habit 3: Put First Things First
Habit 4: Think Win-Win
Habit 5: Seek First to Understand, then
to be Understood
Habit 6: Synergize
Habit 7: Sharpen the Saw
The Time Management Quadrant
1
URGENT
NOT URGENT
•Preparation
IMPORTANT
•Crises
•Pressing Problems
•Deadline driven
projects, meetings,
preparations
2
•Prevention
•Values clarification
•Planning
•Relationship building
•Empowerment
NOT IMPORTANT
•Interruptions, phone
calls
3
•Trivia, busywork
•Some mail, some
reports
•Some telephone calls
•Some meetings
•“Escape” activities
•Many popular
activities
•Excessive TV
•Time wasters
4
Cardio-respiratory System -The Lungs and the
transport of Oxygen
Air enters through the nose and mouth and passes down the trachea
to the bronchial tree.
Human
Performance…
When you inhale, air is drawn into the lungs due to a reduction in pressure inside the chest.
This reduction in pressure can be ascribed to the outward movement of the chest wall and
the downward movement of the diaphragm.
When exhaling the air is expelled from the lungs by the generally passive process of
muscular relaxation allowing the chest wall to fall and the diaphragm to relax.
The ever dividing passageways in your lungs terminate at the alveoli (very fine sac-like
structures) where the blood in the alveolar capillaries is brought into very close proximity
with oxygen molecules.
Under the influence of a pressure gradient, oxygen diffuses across the capillary
membrane from the alveolar sac into the blood. From there it is taken up by the protein
molecule hemoglobin for transport around the body.
Breathing provides an exchange of respiratory gases between the environment and the
blood. The rate and depth of breathing are adjusted to meet the enormous changes in the
consumption of oxygen and the elimination of carbon dioxide.
Meteorology….
The Atmosphere
Most flying here..
Most cloud and
precipitation
here
Position of Jet Streams
Types of Airframe Icing
Glazed/Clear/Rain ice
Hoar Frost
Rime Ice
Most
dangerous
type of ice!
Caused by steep pressure gradients
when the anti-cyclone flow of air from
a high pressure system to the south
west of the country
LOCAL WINDS
The sudden dramatic change
of this south westerly wind,
which replaces the prevailing
north easter is a common
feature of the Buster.
CLOUD
INDICATING WIND
When the South Easterly winds are forced to rise up over
Table Mountain, the famous "table cloth" cloud forms –
The descending air on the other side of the mountain is warmed, and any moisture
present is absorbed by the air as water vapour.
Both sides of the mountain will be clear of cloud, while the summit is cloud covered.
During the summer months there is frequently a
strong south easterly wind prevalent over the Cape
Peninsula.
Cloud Classification
Stratus (St). Layered clouds that form in
stable air near the surface due to cooling
from below
Cumulus (Cu). Cumulus clouds form when
convective currents from the earths radiation
exist. They usually have flat bottoms, and
dome shaped tops
Aircraft Technical and General
The Main Flight Controls
in Action…
Critical engine
Engine overview
Relative Wind
Fuel Injection
Each Cylinder
provided with
correct mixture
from individual fuel
lines.
Advantages:
1. Free from
evaporation ice.
2. More uniform
fuel delivery.
3. Improved fuel/air
ratio control
Crankshaft
Pistons
To Propeller
Turbo
Charging
Gas
Turbine
Engines
turbine
Compressor
The Turbo prop
Radio Aids…
The ADF
Relative bearing information can be displayed on either a RMI (radio
magnetic indicator) or on the older RBI (relative bearing indicator).
The difference between the two indicators is that the RBI does not
display compass heading information but remains on a constant
heading as selected by the pilot.
RMI
RBI Signal Characteristics
•NDB's transmit vertically
polarised signals in the medium
freqency (MF) band.
•The signal is radiated equally
in all directions and aircraft
equipped with receiving
equipment (ADF) can measure
the direction of the incoming
waves.
ADF Interception Calculations.
An aircraft heading 040° M has an ADF reading of 060° Relative from an NDB.
ATC instructs the pilot to Intercept the NDB 120° QDM at an angle of 050°.
Calculate the Intercept Heading, the change in aircraft heading and the
Relative Bearing of the NDB.
Magnetic Heading
Relative Bearing
QDM
040°
+
060°
100°
A ) Intercept
Heading
120° Intercept QDM - 50° Angle = 070 °
50°
B ) Change In Aircraft Heading
AC Heading 040° Went To 070° = 30° Right
C ) Relative Bearing Of NDB
50°
Station.
The area between the limit
of the surface wave and
the point of reception of
the first sky wave, is
termed dead space
1st Sky Return
Sky wave
Surface Wave
Dead Space
Skip Distance
The distance between the
transmitter and the point on
the surface where the first sky
wave return arrives is called
the skip distance
Amplitude Modulation (AM).
Amplitude modulation may be used to transmit coded messages at audio
frequencies (AF) or to transmit speech and music. The audio signal gets
impressed on the radio frequency by changing the amplitude of the Carrier
wave (CW). This change in amplitude is carried out by morphing the carrier wave
to the audio signal. During this process the frequency remains constant.
Resultant Wave
Carrier Wave (A)
Where the audio wave is positive the
amplitude is increased.
Audio Wave (B)
Where the audio wave is negative the amplitude is
decreased.
This is a measure of the modulation depth,
which is a percentage measurement of the
degree to which the wave is modulated. It is
the ratio:
Amplitude of A
Amplitude of B
X 100
Maximum Theoretical Range
Calculation.
If an aircraft ( RX ) is at FL 100 what is the maximum range that the signal can
be received from a transmitter ( TX ) a 100 feet high?
Range ( Nm )  1.25 
Rx Height in Feet  1.25 
Tx Height in Feet
Range ( Nm)  1.25  10 000 Feet  1.25  100 Feet
Range ( Nm)  ( 1.25  100 )  ( 1.25  10 )
Range  125 Nm  12.5 Nm
Range  137.5 Nautical Miles
Primary Radar.
Antenna.
Beam Out
RX
TX
Beam Return
Beam Out
Range =
S X T
2
Instruments……
The DRMC is in essence a compass
card with numeric directions, on a
freely suspended bar magnet
Altimeter
Airspeed Indicator
(ASI)
Drain
Vertical Speed
Indicator (VSI)
Drain
Static Pressure Line
Pitot Pressure Line
Pitot –Static Probe
Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) Colour Coding
Vne
Velocity never
exceeded
Yellow Arc
Cautionary speed
band. In still air
only
Vno
Maximum normal
operating speed
Green Arc
Normal operating
speed band
Vso
Stall speed in the
landing config
Vs1
Stall speed
clean
White Arc
Flap operating
band
Vfe
Maximum
flap extended
speed
Pressure Altimeter
Construction
Sealed Case
Static Vent
Altimeter Scale
Capsule
Linkages
Static Port
Pointer
Baro Correction
Static pressure is measured at the Static port.
As the aircraft climbs the Static pressure decreases and the capsule expands.
This expansion shows an increase in altitude.
As the aircraft descends the Static pressure increases and the capsule will contract.
This contraction shows a decrease in altitude.
The Baro correction is used to compensate for any deviation in ISA conditions.
Fluxvalve Theory
In order to overcome the problems associated with the placing of the compass on
the aircraft, the magnets could be placed outside of the cockpit, in an area where
they where least affected. The problem now however would be how the pilot would
see the instrument. One solution would be to convert the magnetic field (flux), into
electric energy which could be interpreted by cockpit instrumentation as heading
references. This is the role of the fluxvalve.
If instead of using a magnet, a
highly permeable soft metal
Electrical current interpreted
by
instrumentation,
and
bar is fixed to an aircraft
represents
a
magnetic
from fore to aft, and the
heading.
aircraft is placed within the
earths magnetic field, the
bar will itself will acquire flux
"Whenever there is a change of flux (become magnetized). The
linked with a circuit, an
degree to which this flux will
Electromagnetic Field is induced in develop depends upon two
the circuit."
factors:
1. The latitude of the aircraft
2. The position of the bar in
relation to the meridians of
Detect the Magnetic Field and
convert to electrical current.
the magnetic field
Attitude Indicator
The aircraft's attitude relative to
the natural horizon is shown by
the aircraft symbol (A) and
flight command bars (B).
The horizon bar is carried on a
flexible tape with the upper and
lower sections coloured to Glide
represent the sky and ground.
It
Slope
also has to indicate the pitch
angles.
The roll angle is displayed by a
pointer (D) that rotates with the
flexible tape and is referenced
against a fixed scale. (Freedom
of movement for the flexible
tape is: Pitch ± 90° and Roll
360°)
Pitch and Bank Commands
When armed the Pitch and
Bank Commands provide the
pilot with “Fly to commands”.
ATTITUDE : Climb and Left Bank
Command
DBars
Decision
Height AoA
B
B
A
Horizon Bar
Turn and Slip
Indicator
Flight Director
Indicator
Mach Meter Calculations
Calculate the altitude in ISA where a TAS of 465 Knots equals a Mach Number of 0.80.
coat   35.5
FL  252
Flight Level = -35.5°C
FL 252 or 25200 Feet
-35.5°c
35.5 degree temperature Drop
Total Drop 50.5°celcius
0°c
Flight Level = 50.5°C / 2 x 1000
15 degree temperature Drop
15°c
Sea Level
Procedures
“A series of predetermined maneuvers by reference to
flight instruments, with specified protection from
obstacles, from the initial approach fix (or where
applicable, from the beginning of a defined arrival
route) to a point from which a landing can be
completed and thereafter, if a landing cannot be
completed, to a position at which holding or en-route
obstacle clearance limits apply.”
The Heading
Section
The approach
Plan View Section
The “Plate”
The approach
Profile View Section
The Landing Minima
Section
Standard Holding Pattern Terminology
Holding Side
Abeam Position
Outbound Leg
Outbound Turn
4 min below 14 000’
5min above 14 000’
Inbound Turn
Fix End
Inbound Leg
Holding Fix
Holding Course
Non-Holding Side
The Procedure Turn Approach (45/180)
1 minute (CAT A & B aircraft)
1 minute 15 seconds (CAT C, D & E aircraft)
30°
180°
45°
30°
Inbound Track
1 – 3 minutes
A timed outbound track from the facility, followed by,
A 45 turn away from the outbound track (for a given time), followed by,
A turn through 180 in the opposite direction to intercept the inbound track.
Sector 1 – Parallel Entry
•The sector 1 (parallel) entry, is carried out as follows:
On arrival overhead the beacon, the aircraft is turned
onto the outbound heading (to fly parallel to the inbound
track), for the necessary period of time.
The aircraft is turned to the left, into the holding side of
the pattern, to intercept the inbound track or fly directly
to the beacon (as shown).
On arrival overhead the beacon a second time, the
aircraft is turned to the right to follow the holding pattern.
Aircraft turns onto
outbound heading
Turn to the left
CAR’s – Civil Aviation Regulations
Part 1:
Definitions
Part 11:
CARCOM, exemptions, changes to regulators
Part 12:
Accidents and Incidents
Part 61:
Part 64:
Used
to be called
Pilot Licensing
Cabin Crew
ANR’s….
Part 67:
Medical certification
Part 91:
General Operating and Flight Rules
Part 121:
Air Transport - Large Aeroplanes (> 5 700kg)
Part 127:
Air Transport – Helicopters
Part 135:
Air Transport – Small Aeroplanes
(<5 700kg)
Johannesburg
Airspace…
Flight
Planning…
The Planning Process…
Obtain all
Airfield Data –
Jeppesen
AIP
Complete and
File Flight
Plan
Check
Performance
Graphs
Obtain
Weather
METAR/TAF
SigX
Where am I?
Where am
I going?
Complete
Weight and
Balance
Complete
Fuel
Log
Develop
Navigation
Log
Runway Construction
Displaced
Threshold
400 meters
600 meters
210 feet
310 feet
Runway
100 meters
21 50 meters
03
Stopway
2000 meters
Stopway
150 m
Clearway
Clearway
Unit of Measure Conversion
1 lt water = 1kg
1” = 2,5cm
1IG = 10lbs
1m = 100cm
1IG = 1,2USG
1nm = 1,15sm
1kg = 2.2lbs
1nm = 1,85km
1ft = 0.3m
1ft = 12”
1m = 3.28ft
1USG = 3,78lt
1IG = 4,54lt
1lt = 0,26USG
1USG = 8.33lbs
1nm = 6080’
1sm = 1,6km
1sm = 5280’
1km = 3280’
LEMAC or % MAC
Introduction:
Another way of expressing the position of the CG is as a percentage Mean Aerodynamic Chord
or % MAC.
The chord line is the straight line joining the leading edge and the trailing edge of an aerofoil.
On a tapered wing the average length of the chord is calculated and termed the Mean
Aerodynamic Chord or MAC.
When working with MAC use a drawing to solve any questions that can be asked.
DATUM
CG (A )
DIFF ( B )
LEMAC ( C )
MAC ( D )
MAC
LEMAC
Example No 1.
An aircraft has a MAC of 162 inches. The LEMAC is at FS 324. The CG is 412 inches aft of the
datum. What is the CG expressed as a percentage MAC?
DATUM
CG is 412 inches
DIFF 88 inches
LEMAC is 324 inches
MAC is 162 inches
DIFF  CG - LEMAC
DIFF  412 inches - 324 inches
DIFF  88 inches
% MAC 
88 inches
 100
162 inches
% MAC  54.32%
Basic Point of Equal Time ( PET )
Example No 1
The track from point A to point B is 078°. TAS is 176 Kts. Distance from A to B is 843 nautical
miles. W/V 120/40. What is the time to the PET?
Time
=
204 Kts
144 Kts
GSR
Departure
A
GSR
PET 
 Total Distance
GSO  GSR
PET 
204 Kts
 843 nautical miles
144 Kts  204 Kts
PET Distance  494 nautical miles
Time
GSO
Destination
B
PET
PET Time  494 nautical miles  144 Kts
PET Time  03 H 26 Min
Question:
5-34
OAT = 15ºC
PAlt 4800’
Weight = 11300lbs
TWC = 5kts
50’ obstacle to clear.
Calculate
TODR…
If Airfield Elevation is
given, calculate PAlt
before entering the
graph…
Note: When asked for
“take-off distance”,
move up-slope…
When asked for
“take-off ground
roll”, move
horisontal…
Answer:
4100’
Northern
Hemisphere
Summer
Navigation….
Southern
Hemisphere
Summer
Time Zones
Meridians of longitude are drawn
from the North Pole to the South
Pole and are at right angles to
the equator. The "Prime
Meridian" which passes through
Greenwich, England, is used as
the zero line from which
measurements are made in
degrees east and west to 180°.
The equator is an imaginary
circle equidistant from the
poles of the earth. Circles
parallel to the equator (lines
running east and west) are
parallels of latitude. They are
used to measure degrees of
latitude north or south of the
equator. The angular distance
from the equator to the pole is
one-fourth of a circle, or 90°.
Thus latitude would run from
90° North to 90° South of the
equator.
Any specific geographical point
can thus be located by reference
to its longitude and latitude.
Convergency = Dlong x sin Mid Lat
Conversion Angle = Convergency
2
Convergency = 2 x the Conversion
Angle
1 in 60 Rule
What do you
need?
What to expect in the Navigation
Plotting Exam..
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Heading and Speed Determination
Position Determination
Air Plot Wind Determination
Track Plot Wind Determination
Track Correction
We will cover….
 Attitude
Personal
Development
 Curriculum
Vitae
 Body Language
 Interview Skills
 Dress Code
 Company Research
Attitude
Life and flying has one important factor in
common – attitude determines altitude!!
 Attitude is more important than education,
money, failures and successes, appearances,
giftedness and skill.
 Bottom line – if you say you can you are
right. If you say you can not you are also
right.

What is Attitude?
 Attitude
is the way we
communicate our thinking to
other people.
 Our attitude is reflected in the
way we talk, walk, sit, eat, sleep,
drive a car – and indeed in flying
an aircraft.
Know this…
 Our
attitude is the strongest
element of our lives that
requires our control
 Our attitude affects others
 Attitudes can be changed
Make The Call !!

After you send a resume or an introductory
letter, always make a follow-up call. Remember,
it's the conversation that gets you the interview.
Here's how to get on the phone and into the
interview process.

Never call human resources or an in-house
recruiter. These people have no vested interest in
talking with you. In fact, they don't want to talk
to you. You'll only foul up their process. If you
want to get hired, you need to talk with an actual
hiring manager. If that's a midlevel project
supervisor or the Operations Director, so be it.
Your attitude
will make or
break you as a
student!