Transcript Preston-ionosphere - University College London

Physics of the Ionosphere
Alan Aylward
Atmospheric Physics Laboratory
University College London
With thanks to Ingo Mueller-Wodarg
Preamble: you need a neutral atmosphere to
have an ionosphere - the good old days
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Until the advent of rockets we were limited to the lowest 11 km or so of the
atmosphere
Known from fairly early on that pressure and temperature dropped with height
Early balloon observations took up pressure and temperature sensors
In 1901 Teisseren de Bort realised that the temperature stopped falling at
about 11 km altitude
He invented the terms (1908) troposphere and stratosphere - albeit on false
assumptions
Progress through the 20th Century
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Several key figures advanced the theory of the upper atmosphere
Sydney Chapman did some remarkable theoretical development based on gas theory
and bringing together what was known at the time. He virtually invented “diffusive
separation”. Ozone layer theory
1920 Gordon Dobson at Oxford deduced temperature rise at high altitude from studies
of meteor trails - then invented the ozone spectrometer and ozone spectrophotometer it was a Dobson instrument that discovered the ozone hole over Antarctica
He is also the Dobson of “Brewer-Dobson”circulation (1940)
Advances in theory of the ionosphere went hand in hand with this
Sir Edward Appleton deployed the first ionosondes - starting one of the longest sets of
upper atmosphere data ever taken
The age of the rocket
With the space age came pioneers such as our own Sir Harrie Massey, with
Boyd and Bates, who pushed forward the theory of the chemistry, composition
and behaviour of the upper atmosphere. It is their work which underpins what
we know of the atmosphere today
Thermal structure
1) Introduction: Structure and Formation of the F-region
Structure
The F2 layer peak (hmF2)
occurs between 250 and 400
km altitude, is higher at
night than day and higher at
solar maximum conditions.
In contrast to the F1 region,
the F2 layer is maintained at
night.
NmF2
hmF2
Ionosphere composition
Dayside ionosphere composition at solar minimum.
Major F-region ions is O+,
followed by H+ at the top and
NO+ and O2+ at the bottom. Note
that neutral gas concentration at
300 km is around 108 cm-3, so ion
concentrations are 2 orders of
magnitude smaller. Negative ions
are found only in the lower
ionosphere (D region). The net
charge of the ionosphere is zero.
Different gases absorb different wavelengths at different altitudes.
Above around 1400 km (day) and
700 km (night), H+ becomes the
dominant ion, forming a layer
commonly referred to as the
Protonosphere.
At low latitudes, closed magnetic
field lines reach out to several Earth
radii, forming flux tubes. This region
is referred to as the Plasmasphere.
Ionosphere temperatures
In the ionosphere, we distinguish
between ion temperatures, Ti, and
electron temperatures, Te. Ions and
electrons receive thermal energy
during the photoionization and lose
thermal energy through collisions.
Since recombination lifetimes are
smaller than the timescale for
losing the excess thermal energy,
the ion and electron temperatures
above 300 km are both larger than
the neutral temperatures, Tn :
Tn  Ti  Te
External coupling of the ionosphere
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* mainly at high latitudes
The most “visible” sign of energy going into the
ionosphere is the aurorae. “Directed” particle influx
ordered by the geomagnetic field.
QuickTime™ and a
YUV420 codec decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
We could explain the aurora in simple terms
Modern
techniques for
studying the
ionosphere
are more
powerful than
ionosondes
ESR 15 December 2001
16:00
17:00
18:00
tau0
ESR 16 December 2001
00:00
02:00
04:00
06:00 UT
The solar-wind interaction with the magnetosphere is mapped down
into the atmosphere
QuickTime™ and a
YUV420 codec decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Ion/Electron Continuity Equation
r
r
N
 q  l(N)  (NV )
t
Loss

Production
Transport
D, E, F1 region:
q ~ l(N), Transport mostly unimportant
photochemical regime, described by Chapman layers
F2 region:
Transport matters, q and l(N) no longer dominant
optically thin, not Chapman layer
b) Formation of the F2 region
* key reactions
Photoionization:
O  hv  O  e 
(λ<911Å)
(1)
N 2  hv  N 2  e 
(λ< 796Å)
(2a)

2
( fast )
N  O  NO  N
O2  hv  O2  e 
*
(2b)
(λ< 1026Å)
(3)
(λ= 6300Å)
“Airglow”
(4)
Dissociative recombination (rapid) :
O2  e   O  O  hv
NO  e   N  O
(5)
N 2  e   N  N
(6)
O2  N (4S )  NO  O
(7)
*
kO   3  10 7 cm 3 s 1
*
k NO   3  107 cm3 s 1
2
Radiative recombination (slow) :
O   e   O*  O  hv
(7774 Å)
(8)
Charge transfer:
O   O2  O2  O
(9)
N   O  O  N
(10)
O2  NO  NO  O2
(11)
*
kO2  2  1011 cm3 s 1
*
kN2  1 1012 cm3 s 1
Ion-atom interchange:
O  N 2  NO  N
(12)
N   O2  NO  O
(13)
N   O2  O2  N ( 4S )
(14)
Electron production profiles
Curves are:
X(E)…. XEUV (8-140 Å)
UV(E).. UV (796-1027 Å)
F…….. UV (140-796 Å)
E…….. UV(E)+X(E)
E+F…. Total (8-1027 Å)
Ionization peaks occur at
optical depth = 1
Note that peak production occurs near
120 km, whereas the F2 peak is located
near 300 km! Loss rate (~[N2]) decreases
faster with height than production rate
(~[O]) since (O/ N2) increases with
height.
One can see that the production of ionization depends largely on
the [O] density, while photochemical loss is determined by the
abundance of N2 and, to lesser degree, O2 (reactions 2a, 2b, 5, 10).
This figure shows calculated
electron density profiles (Ne)
at selected times after
photoionization is set to zero.
It illustrates the role of
photoionization in maintaining
the ionosphere.
2) Ion and Electron Dynamics
Gravity
Pressure gradient
Lorentz force
Electric field


 

Vi
1 
mi
 mi g 
N i kTi  e  E  e  Vi  B
t
Ni
 
 
 m i v in (Vi  U )  me v ie (Vi  Ve )
Ion-neutral collisions
Ions
Ion-electron collisions


 

Ve
1 
me
 me g 
N e kTe  e  E  e  Ve  B
t
Ne
 
 
 m e v en (Ve  U )  me v ei (Ve  Vi )
Electrons
For


V B :
Define:
 Gyrofrequency:
Since me  m p :
V2
m
 e V B
r
V

r

Be
m
e  p
In the presence of an
E field, particles are
partly accelerated and
decelerated while
gyrating. This causes
net drift in the EB
direction.
Positive and negative charges
gyrate in opposite directions
around the magnetic field lines.
The motion of charged particles is determined primarily by:
• Collisions with the neutral gas particles (at collision frequency v)
• External electric field, E
• Orientation and strength of magnetic field, B
Consider:
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U  B and E  B
Case 1:
v 
Frequent particle collisions, B field plays no role, charged
particles follow neutral wind. Applies below around 80 km.
Case 2:
v 
Charged particles affected by E, B and neutral gas motion,
leading to interesting behaviour. Applies in E region.
Case 3:
v 
Charged particles gyrate around B field lines. E field causes
EB drift (same direction for ions and electrons). Neutral
wind causes UB drift, opposite for ions and electrons,
resulting in an electric current. Applies above around 200
km.
U  0 and E ? B

Idealized electron and ion trajectories
resulting from a magnetic field and
perpendicular electric field. Charged
particles collide with neutrals at regular
intervals of 1/v. Numbers in brackets are
approximate heights (km) where the
situation applies. Note that neutral winds,
U, are assumed zero here.
Below 180 km ions and electrons drift into
different directions.
Above 180 km ions and electrons drift in
the same direction (EB). Note that the
presence of neutral winds however produces
a current.
Plasma Diffusion
Simplifying the momentum equation and assuming vertical components
only, as well as a vertical B field, give:
d ( N i kTi )
  N i m i g  N i eE  N i m i v in (Wi  Wn )
dh
d ( N e kTe )
  N e me g  N e eE  N e me v en (We  Wn )
dh
where W are vertical drift velocities.
When further assuming mi >> me, Ni = Ne = N, Wi = We = WD (plasma
drift velocity) and Wn = 0 (neutral air at rest) and mivin >> meven
(electron-neutral collisions less important than ion-neutral collisions) we
obtain for the drift velocity:
WD 
1 1 d
Nk(Ti  Te )  mi g 

mi v in  N dh

This expression can be rewritten as:
 1 dN
1 dTp
1 

WD  D


 N dh T dh H 
p
p 

with the following definitions:
Tp 
1
Te  Ti 
2
Hp 
2kTp
D
mi g
k Ti  Te 
mi vin
Plasma temperature
Plasma scale height
(plasma has average particle mass 0.5*mi,
since electron mass is negligible)
Plasma diffusion coefficient
Assuming Ti = Te = T gives:
DAP 
2kT
mi vin
Ambipolar diffusion coefficient
3) F2 Region Morphology
a) Diurnal behaviour
Key features:
• Daytime Ne ~ O/N2
• Longevity due to slow recombination (9, 12)
• Daytime hmF2 < nighttime hmF2
Neutral wind influence on plasma distribution
Nighttime scenario:
Neutral winds blow plasma up the
magnetic field lines, into regions of
lower recombination (hence slow
deterioration of F2 layer at night and
larger hmF2).
Daytime scenario:
Neutral winds blow plasma down the
magnetic field lines, into regions of
stronger recombination. Therefore,
hmF2 is lower at day than night.
VB Z  U M  sin(I )  cos(I )

VB Z largest for dip angle I = 45°
The Earth’s geomagnetic field
The Earth’s magnetic field is a
tilted, offset dipole field,
giving rise to longitudedependence of the coupling
between plasma and neutral
winds.
Approximate location of
geomagnetic poles:
80ºN / 69ºW
79 ºS / 111ºE
The coupling between plasma and
neutral winds depends on:
• Latitude due to the change of dip
angle, being largest at the magnetic
pole and smallest over the magnetic
equator
noon
midnight
noon
• Longitude due to the geographic
and geomagnetic pole offsets
• Local time due to the change of
neutral wind direction and electron
density (Ne): at night, Ne is lowest,
so the slow-down of neutral winds
by ions is least effective, giving
larger neutral winds at night and
stronger vertical plasma drifts.
Therefore, neutral-ion coupling in the F2 region is very complex.
What about the equatorial ionosphere?
Differences are:
B field horizontal 
• No vertical diffusion, only horizontal
• No vertical transport due to meridional winds
What are the consequences of this?
Note: hmF2 larger at day
than night (other than at
mid-latitudes!)
Output from International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) model.
Latitudinal structure of Ne at low latitudes
Calculated Ne (in Log10) for December,
20:00 LT.
Note:
• hmF2 larger over magn. Equator
• build-up of ionization at low latitudes
This effect is called the Appleton Anomaly or Fountain Effect.
The key to understanding its cause are the zonal neutral winds
Thermospheric winds in the equatorial E region
drag ions across the magnetic field lines B,
creating during the daytime an eastward
dynamo electric field, which is mapped along
the magnetic field lines into the F region. This,
combined with a northward B field creates an
upward EB plasma drift. At dusk, the
eastward winds are strongest, producing a
particularly strong vertical drift (“pre-reversal
enhancement”).
The pre-reversal enhancement causes RayleighTaylor Instabilities, which
may generate small scale
structure such as
“Equatorial Spread-F”.
Note the differences in
neutral wind-plasma
coupling at low and mid
latitudes (shown earlier)!
The equatorial vertical plasma
drifts are strongly dependent
on neutral winds in the E
region. The shown lines are
simulations for different tidal
diurnal and semidiurnal
modes….
…. with considerable impact
on the shape and magnitude
of the Appleton anomaly.
This effect is an example for
effective coupling between
the thermosphere and
ionosphere at different
altitudes as well as latitudes!
Nothing new left to find?
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Then in 1994 along came sprites
…..and elves
….and blue jets
……and gamma ray bursts
We all know
about
Lightning
Sprites
Since 1989 several
observation campaign s
have been held
Blue jets
Conclusions …..for now
• The ionosphere is the charged part of the atmosphere
• It is important for the interaction with sun and solar wind
• Non-magnetic planets mainly have a simple balance
between insolation/particle influx and chemistry
• Magnetised planets have “directed” ionospheric input
where the structure of the magnetic field determines where
the ionospheric enhancements occur.
• Ionosphere may be crucial for understanding upper-lower
atmosphere coupling - solar variability and climate
change? - global electric circuit