Transcript Document

Cyclotron
&
Synchrotron
Designed by : Mona K h a l e g h y R a d
Advisor: Dr. A g h a m i r y
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Introduction
Accelerators and Detectors
• First Cyclotron : How came to the world
and when?
• What did scientists do with accelerators?
• Other accelerators and detectors during
these years
• First Synchrotron : How came ,why and
when?
• Other recent accelerators and their goals
and results
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For producing beams of
energetic particles
•
•
•
•
Protons, antiprotons and light ions
heavy ions
electrons and positrons
(secondary) neutral beams (photons,
neutrons, neutrinos)
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Accelerator
• Type of accelerators:
1) Fixed Target accelerators
2) Colliding beam accelerators :
a) Electrostatic
b) Cyclic : linear
circular
Betatron
• Cyclotron
• Synchrocyclotron
• Synchrotron
• Colliders
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Accelerator types
• electrostatic
– battery, lightning, van de Graff, Pellatron: to about 30
MeV; for nuclear physics and isotope production
• cascade
– Cockcroft-Walton: to several MeV; cheap; for X-ray
sources and injectors
• Linear
– RFQ
– drift-tube(Wideroe, Alvarez):preaccelerators, LAMPF
– Waveguide:electrons only(SLAC, NLC)
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Particle accelerators are used to investigate the
structure of subatomic particles.
The motivation to strive for higher energy came from
quantum mechanics, which describes particles as waves
whose length is related to the momentum of particle by
de Broglie’s expression : λ=h/p
Higher momentum brings shorter wavelengths and the
capability to reveal the structure of matter with more
details.
Discovery of smaller particles reveals more massive
particles, which require, according to Einstein’s E=mc^2 ,
more and more energy to produce them. As particles are
accelerated to energies many times their rest mass,
momentum and energy will be calculated in terms of the
special relativity. Although velocity saturates
asymptotically – always below the speed of light-,
momentum and energy continue to increase as particles
are accelerated.
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• As a basic principle, accelerators use
powerful electric fields to push energy into a
beam of charged particle. According to
Lorentz force:
• F=q (E +v *B)
• one can see that particles gain energy only
due to the electric field. Particles acquire an
energy which is just their charge multiplied
by the electric potential difference.
• But, building up high-voltage electrostatic
generators creates many difficulties because
of the electrical breakdown, which becomes a
serious problem above a few tens of KV.
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Characteristics of an
accelerator:
• Continuous or pulsed mode of
operation;
• The type of accelerated particles;
• The maximum particle energy;
• The intensity of the particle beam;
• The particle energy resolution.
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Electrostatic
accelerators:
• Particles accelerated by a constant voltage
difference
Example: Van de Graaff accelerators , which
have Van de Graaff generator with tandem
van de Graaff accelerator. (Fig)
The Cockroft-Walton generator is another
kind of generators for electrostatic
accelerators. (Fig)
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Cyclic accelerators:
(Linear or Linac)
In linear accelerators, particles travel in a vacuum
down a long, copper tube. The electrons ride waves
made by wave generators called klystrons.
Electromagnets keep the particles confined in a
narrow beam. When the particle beam strikes a
target at the end of the tunnel, various detectors
record the events -- the subatomic particles and
radiation released. These accelerators are huge,
and are kept underground. An example of a linear
accelerator is the linac at the Stanford Linear
Accelerator Laboratory (SLAC) in California, which
is about 1.8 miles (3 km) long.
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Alvarez Linac
Wideroe Linac
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LINAC’s basic scheme
• The idea of overcoming the voltage breakdown problem
of a single stage of acceleration was to place a series of
cylindrical electrodes one after another in a straight
line to form linear accelerators, called LINACs, and use
an alternative field.
•
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• Charged particles enter on the left and are
accelerated towards the first drift tube by an electric
field. Once inside the drift tube, they are shielded
from the field and drift through a constant velocity.
When they arrive, at the next gap, the field
accelerates them again until they reach the next drift
tube. This continues with the particles picking up more
and more energy in each gap, until they shoot out of
the accelerator on the right. The drift tubes shield
the particles for the length of time that the field
would be decelerating.
• But, to reach high energy, it would require extremely
long linear accelerators.
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Diagram of linear
accelerator
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Linac of CERN
CERN’s accelerator complex,
one of the world’s complex
scientific instruments,
includes particle accelerators
and colliders and handles
beams of electrons,
positrons, protons,
antiprotons and ions. The
achieved energies are about
100GeV in the Large
Electron-Positron Collider
LEP2, and will increase up to
7TeV in the future Large
Hadron Collider LHC.
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Circular Accelerators
• betatron
– electrons only, cheap, portable, to ~500 MeV
• cyclotron
– Protons to ~500 MeV (TRIUMF, PSI)
• Synchrotron
– 100 GeV electrons (LEP)
– 1 TeV protons and antiprotons (FNAL)
– 7 TeV protons (LHC)
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The following step was the cyclotron invention (1929),
based on making a particle follow a circular path in a
magnetic field through the same accelerating gap.
The balance between centripetal acceleration of motion
in a circle and Lorentz’s force is:
evB =mv^2/r
The radius of the orbit in cyclotron is proportional to
the velocity and the frequency of revolution:
f=v/2r=eB/2m
For low energy particles, the revolution frequency of
cyclotron is constant as far as the particle mass remains
into the classic limit.
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Circular accelerators do essentially
the same jobs as linacs. However,
instead of using a long linear track,
they propel the particles around a
circular track many times. At each
pass, the magnetic field is
strengthened so that the particle
beam accelerates with each
consecutive pass. When the particles
are at their highest or desired
energy, a target is placed in the path
of the beam, in or near the
detectors. Circular accelerators were
the first type of accelerator
invented in 1929. In fact, the first
cyclotron (shown below) was only 4
inches (10 cm) in diameter
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cyclotron
• Particles being accelerated move
inside a vacuum chamber comprising
two dees that are connected to a radio
frequency (rf) generator with a
frequency between 10-30 Mhz. (Fig)
• Cyclotron works with fixed frequency
and it is possible until the mass of the
particle approaches its rest mass.
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Animation cyclotron
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Lawrence's cyclotron used two
D-shaped magnets (called Dee)
separated by a small gap. The
magnets produced a circular
magnetic field. An oscillating
voltage created an electric field
across the gap to accelerate the
particles (ions) each time around.
As the particles moved faster,
the radius of the their circular
path became bigger until they
hit the target on the outermost
circle. Lawrence's cyclotron was
effective, but could not reach
the energies that modern
circular accelerators do.
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Modern circular accelerators
place klystrons and
electromagnets around a
circular copper tube to speed
up particles. Many circular
accelerators also have a
short linac to accelerate the
particles initially before
entering the ring. An example
of a modern circular
accelerator is the Fermi
National Accelerator
Laboratory (Fermilab) in
Illinois, which stretches
almost 10 square miles (25.6
square km).
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Lawrence
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Lawrence notes
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The first particle accelerator
(cyclotron) developed by Ernest O.
Lawrence in 1929
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Artist view of cyclotron
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Betatron
• Another electron accelerator (Fig)
• It is now mainly used for : tumour
therapy using either the electron
beam or the X-rays radiated by the
accelerated electrons as they
circulated on their orbits, and for
metal radiography using the Xradiation
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How Atom Smashers Work
Did you know that you have a type of particle accelerator in your
house right now? In fact, you are probably reading this article with
one! The cathode ray tube (CRT) of any TV or computer monitor is
really a particle accelerator.
The CRT takes particles (electrons) from the cathode, speeds them
up and changes their direction using electromagnets in a vacuum and
then smashes them into phosphor molecules on the screen. The
collision results in a lighted spot, or pixel, on your TV or computer
monitor.
Particles are accelerated by electromagnetic waves inside the
device, in much the same way as a surfer gets pushed along by the
wave. The more energetic we can make the particles, the better we
can see the structure of matter. It's like breaking the rack in a
billiards game. When the cue ball (energized particle) speeds up, it
receives more energy and so can better scatter the rack of balls
(release more particles).
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Atom smasher
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TRIUMF
(kind of cyclotron)
• TR13 Cyclotron
The TR13 is a small production
cyclotron accelerating protons
to 30 MeV (MeV = million
electron volts). It was designed
by TRIUMF staff, built by
EBCO Technologies (Richmond,
BC), and is owned by the
University of British Columbia.
Operated by TRIUMF staff,
the TR13 is used in the
research and production of
radioisotopes for medical
purposes. To the right (south)
of the TR13
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• Clean Room
The clean room is kept dust-free by
maintaining a positive atmospheric
room pressure. This is accomplished
by constantly pumping in filtered air
such that the total room air volume
is replaced every 4 minutes. In this
dust-free environment TRIUMF
technicians construct specialized
equipment such as this module
destined for the ATLAS particle
detector at CERN, Switzerland.
(TRIUMF's contribution to the
ATLAS project consists of building 4
detector "wheels" at 32
modules/wheel - 2 "wheels" are
placed at each end of the ATLAS
tracking chamber.)
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• Contraband Detection
System
TRIUMF has developed a
new detection system that
can "see" plastic explosives
or illicit drugs in luggage
and cargo. Even if the
contraband is hidden, by
scanning with gamma rays
the Contraband Detection
System (CDS) will provide
3-dimensional images of
even small amounts of
plastic explosives or illicit
drugs
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Scintillators
Scintillators are tested in the meson
hall service annex (situated next to the
meson hall extension). These plastic
materials emit photons of visible light
when they are struck by energetic
particles or photons. In this display
they are made to fluoresce by an
ultraviolet lamp. Scintillators are used
extensively at TRIUMF to detect
particles, in conjunction with a
photomultiplier tube which amplifies
the light and converts it to an electric
pulse. The scintillators are covered in
black tape to exclude all outside light.
Often complex-shaped light pipes are
used to connect the scintillator to the
photomultiplier, as the phototubes are
too big to fit in the crowded area
around the target. (Next: Meson Hall)
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• Meson Hall
Most of the protons extracted
from the cyclotron are used to
create an intense beam of pions (or
"pi-mesons") for use in the meson
hall. In an average of 26 billionths
of a second the pions decay into
muons (which last, on average, for
2.2 millionths of a second).
Separating the pion beam into
different "beam lines" allows
several pion/muon experiments to
be performed simultaneously.
Looking down two stories to the
meson hall floor below, we see
some of the individual beam lines
emerging from the yellow shielding
blocks.
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• Concrete Blocks
This first thing you will notice about the
meson hall is the number of huge yellow
blocks, piled up like a giant brick wall,
along the south side. As you may have
guessed, these "bricks" are made of
concrete. Concrete is used as a shielding
material wherever possible. It is
reasonably effective and inexpensive.
Also, the modular blocks are easily
moved, by one of the twin 50-ton
travelling overhead cranes, for
maintenance or changing of beam line
elements. The whole building contains
45,000 tonnes of concrete shielding to
absorb the radiation given off by the
cyclotron and beam lines.
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Cave Interlocks
To visit one of the experimental
areas, we walk down two flights
of stairs. The area around the
beam line where the experiment
is mounted is known as a "cave".
A cave is typically surrounded
by shielding blocks and secured
with an interlock system, which
prevents beam delivery to the
beam line when the cave door is
open. Experimenters set up
their equipment, including
particle detectors, and must
leave before the control room
personnel allow the beam to
enter the experimental area.
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RMC Counting Room
Electric signals from
the photomultipliers,
drift chambers and
other particle
detectors are brought
in here and processed
electronically before
being sent to the data
acquisition computer.
(RMC stand for
radiative muon capture
- an ongoing
experiment.)
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• RMC Data Acquisition
The physics data
acquisition is controlled
from this workstation.
Data is sorted and
formatted, then written to
8mm videotape for later
analysis. Data may also be
processed immediately to
give a visual reconstruction
of the particle tracks for
each "event".
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Proton Therapy
Also located in the meson hall,
next to the cyclotron vault, is
the proton therapy facility. This
facility uses a finely tuned
proton beam from the cyclotron
to treat cancerous growths on
the back of a patient's eye,
called choroidal melanomas. In
this facility we see the
specialized treatment chair and
alignment methods used by the
B.C. Cancer Agency medical team
to focus the proton beam
accurately into the tumour.
(Next: we visit the roof of the
cyclotron vault - 12 metres above
the meson hall floor.)
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ISIS: Ion Source Injection
System
Negatively charged hydrogen
ions are transported through
this beam pipe and injected
into the centre of the
cyclotron. This delivery
system includes electrostatic
steering elements and an
ultra-high vacuum system. At
the far end and to the right
are the four ion sources.
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Ion Sources
There are four different ion
sources. Which is used
depends on the type of proton
beam the experimenters
require. Sources 1 and 3
produce unpolarized hydrogen
ions. Sources 2 and 4 produce
polarized hydrogen ions.
Source 2 uses an older method
and is not used much. Source 4
uses lasers to generate the
polarized ions and is called an
optically pumped polarized ion
source (OPPIS) - TRIUMF is
at the leading edge in the
development of this
technology.
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Entry to the Cyclotron Vault
Upon entering the vault all
persons must put on
overshoes. On exiting, the
overshoes are removed and a
frisker is used to check for
radioactive contamination. It
is a good idea to leave any
credit cards, etc. at this
station since the intense
magnetic field from the main
cyclotron magnet will delete
their megnetic information
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Underneath the Cyclotron
Accelerator Chamber
Looking underneath the
cyclotron accelerator chamber
we first notice a yellow magnet
sector. The magnetic field
here is so strong it disrupts
the electronics in our camera
equipment. The pictures shown
here were taken in manual
mode. The magnetic field
presents a severe safety
hazard, since steel tools and
even heavy compressed gas
bottles are attracted with
great force to the magnets
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Tie Rods
Another noticeable feature is
the tie rods on the underside
of the cyclotron tank. During
operation, the inside of the
tank is almost a perfect
vacuum. The rods, present both
below and above the
accelerator chamber, prevent
it from collapsing due to
atmospheric pressure. See
Cyclotron Facts for more
details
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The Cyclotron Superstructure
The superstructure which
surrounds the cyclotron
supports the magnets (total
weight: 4000 tonnes) and
prevents the accelerator
chamber from imploding due to
atmospheric pressure. Beside
the giant cyclotron we see
stairs leading to the top of the
structure. Situated above the
stairs is the moveable crane
used for maintenance
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Top of the Cyclotron
From the top of the stairs, we
have a good view of the
cyclotron. Twenty-four jacks,
evenly-spaced around the
cyclotron, have been used to
carefully lift the lid of the
chamber (after releasing the
vacuum) and the upper magnet
(2,000 tonnes) to a height of
1.2 m (4 ft). To eliminate any
warping of the accelerator
chamber, computers are used to
control the rate of lift of each
jack to within 1 mm of each
other (the thickness of a
dime!).
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The Vacuum Tank
About twice a year the cyclotron is shut
down for maintenance. At these times the
accelerator chamber is pressurized and
opened. Remote-control robots enter the
chamber first and are used to assess the
radiation levels. Once the level and location
of the radiation "hot spots" are
determined, workers enter the chamber to
check for worn or damaged components
and to replace them. The process to seal,
clean and empty the chamber of all
particles, including water vapour and air,
requires tremendous heat and vacuum
pressure. Any foreign particles left in the
chamber can disrupt the free motion of
the hydrogen ions and reduce the quality
of the ion beam. The worker shown in this
picture is kneeling on one of the lower
"dees" - so called because they are shaped
like the letter "D".
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Dees
The dees (a model shown) are the "electrodes"
used to accelerate the hydrogen ions. The
individual elements are the radiofrequency
resonators. If you look closely you will see a small
gap between the dees (centre horizontal line). By
alternating the voltage in the dees from positive
to negative and back to positive in a cyclic pattern
(23 million times per second!), a positive polarity
dee is always presented to approaching negatively
charged hydrogen ions as they cross the gap. The
other dee, having the opposite polarity, doubles
the voltage difference across the gap. The
maximum voltage difference is 186,000 volts.
Hence the hydrogen ions are boosted in energy on
each half turn in the cyclotron. Only those ions
crossing the gap during the polarity change will be
accelerated. Thus, the hydrogen ions are injected
into the centre of the cyclotron in bunches, move
through an increasing orbit, and leave in bunches.
This method of accelerating particles permits
TRIUMF to constantly inject ion "packets" into
the cyclotron thus providing a constant high
intensity output. While other particle
accelerators may produce faster beams, few can
produce as an intense a beam as TRIUMF.
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Beam Line Extraction Magnets
After the electrons are stripped
from the hydrogen ions, the
remaining protons follow a
predetermined curved path out of
the cyclotron and into one of the
three main beam lines. This picture
shows beam line 1 at its emergence
from the cyclotron. From here this
proton beam is guided by a group of
huge electromagnets into meson
hall. Magnets are used to bend a
beam's path. Also, because the
protons in the beam are all
positively charged and repel each
other, the proton beam spreads and
therefore must be "focused" from
time to time using a set of magnets.
(Next stop: outside south side.)
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Synchrocyclotron
Isochronous : the particle which satisfies the
rational frequency in high speeds:
 =qB/2m
Particles with high speeds increase in mass ,
R=(1/cqB)√Ek^2+2mc^2Ek
so the time of receiving will be later and this is
opposite of the linac ,here phase stability
should be satisfies as accelerating field come
to particles.
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Synchro-Cyclotron(1933)
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Synchrotron
As momentum and energy increase and the velocity of a
particle approaches that of light, then the velocity begins
to increase less rapidly than the particle mass, so the
revolution frequency drops so that particles are no longer
synchronous with the accelerating potential.
The discovery of the synchrotron principle opened the way
to the series of circular accelerators, which are used up, to
the present day.
A short pulse of particles is injected at low magnetic field,
the field rises in proportion to the momentum of particles
as they are accelerated and this ensures that the radius of
the orbit remains constant.
The accelerated particles take less and less time to
complete their orbit so the frequency of the accelerating
alternative current must increase as well.
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Synchrotron radiation
W=(e2/3e0)(g4b3/R)
loss per turn
Ec=(hc/2p)(3g3/2R)
peak energy
g=E/mc2
LEP: 100 GeV/beam: R=4.9km W~3 GeV Ec~
90 keV(hard X-ray) 288 SC RF cavities
Tevatron: E=1 TeV R=1.1km W~ 10 eV Ec~0.4
eV
LHC: E=7 TeV R=4.9 kmW~5 keV, Ec~27 eV
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Synchrotron basic
scheme
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• Charged particles receive the energy needed to reach a
speed close to that of light from accelerating cavities,
which store up electric energy, transferring a small
amount to the particles each time they pass. They act
like a short section of linear accelerator. Several radiofrequency (rf) cavities are positioned around the ring.
These contain the alternating electric field synchronized
with the beam’s orbital period, and accelerate the
charges.
• Dipole magnets keep the particles moving in a circle.
Whenever a charged particle is swung in a circle it
radiates energy. The greater its centripetal acceleration
the greater the rate of radiation, so high-energy
electrons in circular accelerators lose a lot of energy as
synchrotron radiation.
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The opening angle depends on 1/g, where g is the
gamma factor =1/ √1-v^2/c^2, so the higher
energetic are particles, the smaller will be this angle.
The radiated power depends on  ^4 and curvature
of the path. This must be pumped into the beam
through the rf cavities. The LEP radius of about 3,1km
is designed to ensure a smooth bending of particle
beam to avoid energetic losses.
The radiation losses in electron-positron accelerators
are much bigger than in proton-antiproton
accelerators. The mass of electron is roughly 2000
times smaller than that of the proton, and therefore,
for the same energy it has a g, that is 2000 times
larger. The radiated power depends on  ^4 , so
there are necessary powerful rf systems and much of
the voltage per turn, U, to keep the beam from
decelerating.
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Comparison between the colliders’ parameters.
The particle energies, collider’s radius, number
of particles per bunch, the necessary voltage
per turn and radiated power are given in the
column for each type of collider
E(GeV) R ( km) N(10^12) U(MeV) P (MW)
LEP1
45
(1989)
LEP2
100
(1995)
LHC
7000
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3.1
260
260
2.1
3.1
2800
2800
23
3.1
0.007
0.007
0.005
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• So, each time more energy is pumped into the particles,
the magnetic field has to be increased to prevent them
for skidding of the ring.
• Focusing quadrupole magnets are used to keep the
particles tightly packed within the beam. They work in
much the same way as lenses do with light. Effective
focusing is very important as it enhances the beam
intensity and reduces the beam cross-section.
• The particle beam travels inside a pipe, from which the
air has been removed in order that particles collisions
with molecules of air to be avoided. Beam stability
depends on the vacuum chamber geometry.
• Large particle colliders are used to accelerate particles
to very high energies. If the incoming particles are
simply slammed into a stationary target, much of the
projectile energy is taken up by the target’s recoil and
not exploitable. Much more energy is available for the
production of new particles if two beams traveling in
opposite directions are collided together.
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Strong focusing
animation
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• The energy of interest to produce new particles in
different collisions is Ecm, the enrgy in the center-ofmass frame. In the case of colliders, Ecm=2Ep, where
Eb means the energy of one incident particle.
• The electron-positron accelerator LEP is a collider.
Electrons and positron circulated in opposite
directions in the same guide field, being equal in mass
but opposite charge, appeared to the magnetic bending
and focusing fields as identical currents, one bent to
the left, the other to the right. Another CERN
collider, the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) uses the
same technique to circulate protons in one direction
and anti-proton in the opposite direction.
• Basic scheme of LEP collider :
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Bunches of particles are focused down to the thickness of a hair and
made to collide. Each bunch contains more than 10^11 (see Table 1),
but on average only one in about 40000 collisions between the
bunches produces the desired effect-a head-on electron-positron
collision. To increase the probability of these events, bunches are
made to circulate several hours into the ring.
The LEP2 collider at CERN was until 1999 the largest particle
collider in the world, accelerating bunches of electrons and positrons
to the energies needed to produce pairs of charged carriers of the
weak force W+ and W- particles. Detection of Z0s and Ws, allowed
the LEP experiments to make precise tests of the Standard Model
of particles and their interactions.
The Large Hadron Collider LHC is designed to accelerate hadrons in
experiments probing beyond the Standard Model, more precisely,
addressing the following topics: the origin of the particle masses,
unification of strong, weak, electromagnetic gauge interaction, and
the quarks flavour. LHC machine will share the 27-kilometre LEP
tunnel, and will use the most advanced superconducting magnets and
accelerators technologies. The magnitude of the magnetic field will
be B=8,4T, at a current of 11700 A and temperature of T=1,9K.
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Process of Synchrotron
(IPNS)
First, we actually start
with a proton by
striping off electrons
by using an electrical
generator called a
Cockcroft-Walton
generator.
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• Next, we send the
proton down a LINAC
(linear accelerator)
to speed up the
proton. It has to
have enough energy
to knock the neutron
out of our target
(explained later).
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• We then send the
proton into a Rapid
Cycling
Synchrotron to
speed it up even
further (about 3/4
the speed of light).
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• The proton is then
sent down to the
target to knock the
neutrons out. In our
case, we use Uranium
which has quite a few
neutrons in the
nucleus. The proton
strikes the nucleus
and "knocks" off
neutrons. These
neutrons are "slowed"
down by moderators
and sent down flight
paths to all thirteen
of the instruments.
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LHC
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Colliders
• Circular
– e- e+ below 10 GeV (BEPS/PEP-2/KEKB)
– 1 TeV p/1 TeV pbar (Tevatron-FNAL),
– 27.5 GeV e-/920 GeV p (HERA-DESY)
– 105 GeV e-/105 GeV e+ (LEP-CERN)
– 7 TeV p/7TeV p (LHC-CERN)
• Linear
– 50 GeV e-/50 GeV e+ (SLC-SLAC)
– ~1 TeV e-/~1 TeV e+ (NLC-?)
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