Transcript Geografi Politik dan Geopolitik

Geografi Politik dan Geopolitik
Pengertian Geografi Politik dan Geopolitik
Political geography is the field of human geography that is concerned
with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes
of political processes and the ways in which political processes are
themselves affected by spatial structures. Conventionally political
geography adopts a three-scale structure for the purposes of analysis
with the study of the state at the centre, above this is the study
of international relations (or geopolitics), and below it is the study of
localities. The primary concerns of the sub-discipline can be
summarised as the inter-relationships between people, state, and
territory
The term geopolitics reflects the connection between power and
interests, strategic decision-making, and geographic space.
Academically, the study of geopolitics involves the analysis of geography, history and social
science with reference to spatial politics and patterns at various scales. It is multidisciplinary in its
scope, and includes all aspects of the social sciences with particular emphasis on political geography,
international relations, the territorial aspects of political science and international law.[3]Also, the study
of geopolitics includes the study of the ensemble of relations between the interests of international
political actors, interests focused to an area, space, geographical element or ways, relations which
create a geopolitical system
Nation
• Geographers’ definition: community of people with common ancestry,
culture and territory
• Does not imply an independent political unit
• e.g. Quebec; Acadians in Eastern Canada; “First Nations” throughout
Canada
• Geopolitics: Friedrich Ratzel (Ger)
– State resembles a biological organism – birth, maturity,
decline, death
– Nourishment through acquisition of less powerful
territories; space is essential
– “Organic Theory” (stated above): led to expansionist
Nazi policies of 1930s
• Heartland Theory: Halford Mackinder (Br)
– Heart of Eurasia – resource-rich, land-based “pivot
area”, E. Eur is key to World Island
• Rimland Theory: Nicholas Spykman (US)
– Eurasian rim, not heart – key to global power
Mackinder’s Heartland Theory &
Spykman’s Rimland Theory
• Evolution of Boundaries
– Boundary – a vertical plane that cuts through the subsoil & airspace (even
outer space)
– Definition – legal document or treaty drawn up to specify actual points in the
landscape
– Delimitation – cartographers put the boundary on the map
– Demarcation – boundary is actually marked on the ground w/ wall, fence,
posts,…
• Types of Boundaries
– Geometric – straight-line, unrelated to physical or cultural landscape, lat &
long (US/Canada)
– Physical-political (natural-political) – conform to physiologic features (Rio
Grande: US/Mexico; Pyrenees: Spain/France)
– Cultural-political – mark breaks in the human landscape (Armenia/Azerbaijan)
• Origin-Based Classification
– a.k.a. genetic boundary types
– Antecedent – existed before the cultural landscape
emerged
– Subsequent – developed contemporaneously with the
evolution of the cultural landscape
– Superimposed – placed by powerful outsiders on a
developed landscape, usually ignores pre-existing
cultural-spatial patterns
– Relict – has ceased to function, but its imprint can still
be detected on the cultural landscape
• Frontier – zone of separation, a territorial
“cushion” that keeps rivals apart
• Boundary Disputes
– Definitional – focus on legal language (e.g. median line
of a river: water levels may vary)
– Locational – definition is not in dispute, the
interpretation is; allows mapmakers to delimit
boundaries in various ways
– Operational – neighbors differ over the way the
boundary should function (migration, smuggling)
– Allocational – disputes over rights to natural resources
(gas, oil, water)
Major
area of
dispute
w/ Iraq in
1990s
Relative Location of Kuwait
Iron Curtain
NATO
“Above” the State Boundaries
Geopolitik:
Organisasi Negara dan Kekuatan
Nasional (Interest)
• Core-Periphery Model
– World Systems Analysis (Immanuel Wallerstein) – view
the world as an interlocked system of states
– Core – economically dominant states
– Periphery – developing states; have little autonomy or
influence
– Semi-periphery – middle; keeps the world from being
polarized into two extremes
– The world must be seen as a system of interlinking
parts; ties political and economic geography together
• Core areas – center, heart; relates to scale
– State – national heartland: largest pop., most
productive region, greatest centrality, may contain the
capital (multicore – Nigeria, US)
– Region – several economically strong states
• Capital city – pol. nerve center, seat of gov’t,
center of nat. life, & nat. headquarters
• Forward capital – capital city moved for a nat.
objective; culture, disputed territory, …
• Primate city – state’s largest city; most expressive
of culture, may be capital: Mexico City, Paris,
Jakarta, … (many countries don’t have: e.g. US)
• Centripetal Forces – promote unity
– Charismatic leaders, external threats ( Iraq)
– Nationalism – religion, education, national ideology, …
• Centrifugal Forces – divisive forces
– Internal religious, linguistic, ethnic, or ideological
differences
– Tribalism – people identify more w/ their local
affiliation than with their country
Colonialism has changed the global
order of politics; often creating
unequal cultural and economic
relations
Colonized regions of the world
70
60
50
Africa
Latin America
Asia
40
30
20
North America
Pacific Islands
10
0
15
00
15
50
16
00
16
50
17
00
17
50
18
00
18
50
19
00
19
50
Number of colonies
90
80
Year
Geographic Characteristics of States
• Size - important for resources, power,
governance, communication
– Russian Federation- 17,075,000 km2 Nauru 20 km2
• Shape - for governance/transport
• Location - Absolute & Relative
Location
• Absolute Location
– Position with respect to grid (lat/long) Gibraltar’s
absolute location is 36°09N 5°21W
• Relative Location
– Position with respect to other states and regions.
Gibraltar’s relative location is crucial as a British
colony at the entrance to the Mediterranean Sea.
Strategic Locations
• Relative locations of importance to two or
more states
• Military or economic significance
• differs over time – e.g. results of change
from wind to coal to petroleum as fuel for
shipping
• many Straits are good examples -Malacca, Bosphorus, Bering Strait, Strait of
Hormuz, Strait of Gibraltar
• Canals – Suez, Panama
Strategic Location of oil
resources in Iraq/Kuwait.
n
Strategic location: oil geopolitics & formation of OPEC
•
1960 - OPEC founded in Baghdad by Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela to
win better return for oil producers whose output is controlled by Western
multinationals.
•
1973 - An Arab oil embargo during Arab-Israeli war disrupts oil flows and triggers panic
buying.
•
OPEC countries wrest pricing fully from Western multinationals in first "Oil Shock" and
prices soar from around $2.50 a barrel in January 1973 to $11.50 by 1974.
Pipeline Development: SE Asia
Straits of Malacca
• 1/4 of total world
commodity trade
• 1/2 of all world’s oil
shipments
• 2/3 of total
liquidfied natural
gas
•
•
Economic development of impoverished
nations
Social, environmental, and cultural change:
‘modernization’ and resistance to it e.g. Kra
isthmus, Thailand
• Law of the Sea
– Needed because of the weakness of the older 'freedom of the seas'
concept, dating from the 17th century: national rights limited to 3
nautical miles. All water beyond national boundaries was considered
international waters - free to all nations, but belonging to none of
them.
– In the 20th century many nations expressed a need to extend national
claims. In 1945 President Truman extended the US’s control to cover
all the natural resources of its continental shelf.
– Other nations were quick to emulate the USA. Between 1946 and
1950, Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Ecuador all extended their sovereign
rights to a 200 nautical miles distance, to cover fishing grounds. Other
nations extended their territorial seas to 12 nautical miles.
– As of 2006, only a handful of countries use the old 3 miles limit
(Jordan, Palau, and Singapore, and others).
• Exclusive economic zone:
Under the Law of the Sea, an Exclusive Economic
Zone (EEZ) is a sea zone over which a state has rights
to the exploration and use of marine resources.
Pressures on state primacy
•
Over the centuries, power has changed hands from
church to state to corporations
•
Trends that weaken a state:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Globalization of economy, transnational corporations
Proliferation of international institutions
Emergence of NGOs (non-governmental organizations)
International migration
Increase in nationalist and separatist movements
International political organizations
• Today there is more globalization and
homogenization
• When a state joins an international organization, it
must give up some of its sovereignty
• Examples: UN, WHO, UNICEF, the World Bank, IMF,
EU, NATO
• NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization – a military alliance
– The member states agree to defend each other if attacked by an
external party
Political Geography
Political geography vocabulary
• State: an area organized into a political unit and
ruled by an established government that has control
over its internal and foreign affairs (sovereignty)
–
–
–
–
Defined territory, permanent population
Synonym for country
A nation is not a country, but rather the people
A formal region
• Sovereignty: independence from control of its
internal affairs by other states
– A sovereign state has control over its affairs
– Internal: laws, print money
– External: treaties, passports (diplomatic relationships with
other states)
– Tribal governments are not sovereign, but they have
autonomy
• Nation-state: a sovereign state inhabited by a
homogeneous group of people who share a feeling
of common nationality.
– Examples:
• Japan (most Japanese are in Japan)
• Poland
– By contrast, most countries are multi-ethnic
• Stateless nation: people without their own state
– Kurds live in Iraq, Eastern Turkey, Iran, Syria
http://img.timeinc.net/time/daily/special/photo/salgado/kurds.jpg
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iraq/images/kurdistan1.gif
• Number: approximately 200 countries in the
world
Regional Organizations
Worldwide
Source: Wikipedia
Supranational Entities in Eurasia
GROWTH OF THE EU
GROWTH OF THE EU
?
CORE
?
CONFIRMATION OF CORE-DOMAIN MODEL
Terms to enhance discussion of
geopolitical discourses
•
Geopolitical codes
– Particular constructions of “us” and “them”
• E.g. Evil Empire, hyperpower, failed state, a people in exile, God’s chosen people, members of a
protectorate, etc.
– Particular constructions of space, place, and time
• E.g. manifest destiny, mission civilisatrice, “a land without people for a people without land,”
the march of progress, lebensraum, etc.
•
Narrative appeals
– The moral of a geopolitical tale
– Tragic, comic, romantic or ironic in nature
• E.g. “once again we’ve been ripped off” (tragic), “once again we’ve been obligated to save the
world” (romantic), “once again our ties to [insert state name] have benefited us,” etc.
• All such appeals are constructions rather than facts
•
Omissions
– Very little can be said in a news article
– What facts or conditions were left out of the story and how might they have interfered
with the geopolitical codes and narrative appeals in the story?
The driving question
• Q. What is geography good for?
• A. Defense and conquest.
– This, at least, is the oldest and most common answer to the question!
– geography was important to the Roman Empire, the Chinese
Dynasties, the British Empire, & the expanding U.S. (19th c.)
• “Realist” approach to foreign policy
– based on assumption that world is governed by force rather than
cooperation
– Appropriate foreign policies either subdue other countries or contain
them
– Alternative, “Kantian” approach is based on assumption that power
politics do not provide lasting solutions and states must cooperate
Uses of geographical info.
• settlement (planting colonists and resisting
"the natives")
• contesting claims of other potential colonizers
• waging war (against "natives" and other
colonizers)
• justifying the struggle for regional or global
domination
H. Mackinder’s "heartland"
theory (1904)
cold war “containment”