Transcript APHUG First Semester Reviewx

AP Human Geography
Key Concept Review
Geography as Field of Study
• Geography – “geo” - “the earth”
– “graphein” - “to write”
• Cartography - art & science of map-making
• Developed early by Greeks, Romans, Chinese,
Arabs
Names in Geography
• Eratosthenes - Greek scholar
– Used geometry; accurately calculated circumference of
earth
• Ptolemy - Greek scholar
– Developed global grid system forerunner to latitude &
longitude
• Idrisi - Arab geographer
– Gathered maps, consulted mariners & travelers, went on
scientific expeditions
Names in Geography
• Immanuel Kant - defined geography as study of
interrelated spatial patterns
– Description & explanation of similarities & differences
between regions
• George Perkins Marsh
– Focused on impact of human actions on natural
environment
• Carl Sauer - cultural landscapes
– C.L.=product of interactions between humans & their
environments
Types of Geography
• Physical
• Political
• Human - Where are people? How are they alike and
different? How do they interact? How do they
change the natural landscapes, and how do they use
them?
• Urban
• Environmental
Key Geographical Skills
• Spatial Perspective - the way places and things
are arranged and organized on earth’s surface
• Absolute Location
– Meridians, parallels, latitude, longitude
– Greenwich, England
• Relative Location
Use of Maps
• Reference Material - tool for storing
information
• Communications/education - often thematic can explain spatial perspective to others - ex.
Soil types
• Contour Map - topography
Map Projections
• Globe - only accurate representation of earth
• “All maps lie flat and all flat maps lie.”
– distortion
• Mercator - created for navigating ships across
Atlantic Ocean; direction is true; distortion
towards poles
• Robinson - good projection for general use;
distortion greatest at poles
• Peters - keeps land masses equal in area; shapes
distorted
Scale
• Size of unit studied - local, regional, global? Ex.
drought
• Map Scale
– Mathematical relationship between size of area on map &
actual size on surface of earth
– Large scale maps = more details
• 1/24
– Small scale maps = less details
• 1/24,000
Time Zones
• Use longitude to determine
• 180 degrees east and west of prime meridian,
runs through Greenwich, England (set by
international agreement)
• 15 degrees apart - 24 sections - 1 hour each
• Encouraged by creation of railroads
“Place”
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=unique location of a geographic feature
Place name - toponyms
Site Situation
Absolute location Pattern = linear vs. centralized vs. random vs.
grid/rectilinear
– Ordinance of 1785
Regions
• Formal/Uniform - similarities in physical or cultural
features
• Functional/Nodal - organized around nodes or cores
– Core vs. periphery
• Perceptual/Vernacular - places people believe to
exist a part of their cultural identity
Space-Time Compression
• Describes changes that rapid connections
among places and regions have brought
• First transportation and communication
• Now television and computers
• Impact of globalization
Geographic Technologies
• GIS - Geographic Information System
– computer system that can layer captured data
• GPS - Global Positioning System
– Uses series of satellites, tracking stations, and
receivers to determine precise absolute locations
on earth
Population
Unit Two
Demography
• Study of population
• Population geography = number, composition,
& distribution of human beings on earth’s
surface
• Follow growth and movement of population
Distribution, Density & Scale
• Distribution - arrangement of locations on earth
where people live
– Dot maps
• Population density - # of people in a given area of
land
– 90% of people live north of equator
– More than 1/2 of all people live on 5% of land and 9/10 on
less than 20%
– Most people live close to sea level
– 2/3 of world lives within 300 miles of ocean
Density
• Arithmetic (crude)
– Total number of people divided by total land area
• Physiological population
– Total number of people divided by arable land
Carrying Capacity
• Number of people an area can support on a
sustained basis
• Farmers using irrigation & fertilizers support
more people
• Industrial societies import raw materials &
export manufactured goods
Population Pyramids
• Represents a population’s age & sex composition
• Factors affecting shape:
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Health care
War
Availability of birth control
Cultural values
Level of economic development
Population Concentrations
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2/3 of world pop in 4 regions:
East Asia - 1/5 of world
South Asia - 1/5 of world
Southeast Asia - 500 million
Europe - primarily urban
Race and Ethnicity
• Race - category composed of people who share
biologically transmitted traits that members of a
society consider important
• Ethnicity - less based on physical characteristics &
emphasizes a shared cultural heritage, such as
language, religion, and customs
• Important because people tend to live in areas with
people of same race or ethnicity
Population Growth & Decline
• Little pop growth until mid-18th century
• Agricultural or Neolithic Revolution
– Until then, doubling rate was very long
– Birth rates and death rates were high
• 1750 Industrial Revolution - England
– Population explosion
– Doubling time has dropped fast
Theories of Population Growth
• Zero population growth movement - goal to level off
world’s pop growth to ensure earth can sustain its
inhabitants
• Thomas Malthus
– Food growing arithmetically vs. pop growing exponentially
– Neo-Malthusians, The Population Bomb, Paul Ehrlich,
drove international efforts using birth control and family
planning
The Vocabulary of Population Theory
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CBR
TFR
Demographic momentum
CDR
IMR
NIR
Life expectancy
Demographic Transition Theory
• Stage 1 - pre-industrial, agrarian societies
– High CBR and CDR
• Stage 2 - industrialization
– High CBR, lower CDR
– By mid19th century - epidemiological revolution aka mortality
revolution
• Stage 3 - mature industrial economy
– CBR drops, CDR low
• Stage 4 - post-industrial economy
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CBR continues to fall and CDR low
More women in workforce
Children expensive
Extensive education needed to fill post-industrial jobs
Population and Natural Hazards
• Climate, drought, hurricanes, typhoons, tsunamis
• Malthus’ “negative checks” - famine and disease
• Globalization has increased spread of communicable
diseases
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AIDS
Asian bird flu
Pandemic = widespread epidemic
Swine flu
Population Policies
• Expansive policies - like Mao Zedong’s
• Restrictive policies
– China - Deng Xiaoping
• One child policy
• Female infanticide
– India - democracy’s problems
• Family planning
• Rural families
• Indira Gandhi
International Policy Efforts
• 1994 International Conference on Population and
Development in Cairo, Egypt - agreed that improving
the status of women is essential to population
control
• 1995 UN Fourth World Conference in Beijing, China agreed that women needed to control fertility
allowing them to take advantage of educational and
employment opportunities
Population Movement
• Circulation = our short-term repetitive movements in
our days
• Migration = involves a permanent move to a new
location, within a country or to another country
• Demographic equation = summarizes population
change over time in an area by combining natural
change (death rate subtracted from birth rate) and
the net migration
• Emigration - migration FROM a location
• Immigration - migration TO a location
Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration
• British demographer
• Wrote 11 migration laws
• Most immigrants move short distance
– Distance decay - decline of activity or function with
increasing distance from point of origin
– Step migration - long-distance migration done in
stages
– Intervening opportunities - those planning to go
long distances find other opportunities before
reaching final destination
Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration
• Migrants moving longer distances tend to
choose cities as destinations
• Each migration flow produces a counter-flow;
ex. When one group moves in to
neighborhood, another group moves in
• Families less likely to make international
moves; single males more likely
Gravity Model
• Inverse relationship between the volume of
migration and the distance between source
and destination
• A large city has a greater gravitational pull
than a small one, but it still tends to pull
people that live closer rather than farther
away
Reasons for Migration
• Push factor = encourages people to move
• Pull factor = attracts people to a region
Major Migrations at Different Scales
• Asia, Latin America and Africa have net out-migration
• North America. Europe, and Oceania jave net inmigration
• Largest flows are:
– Asia to Europe
– Asia to North America
– South America to North America
U.S. Immigration Patterns
• Three Main Eras:
– Initial settlement of colonies
– Emigration from Europe
– Immigration since 1945
Initial Settlement of Colonies
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About 1 million Europeans came before 1776
Another 1 million by 1840
Majority from Britain
Others from Netherlands, Sweden, France, Germany,
Iberian Peninsula
• 18th century - 400,000 African slaves brought over
Emigration from Europe
• 19th-20th century migration one of most significant
in history
• 75 million departed for Americas between 1835-1935
• Largest number to USA
• Three waves:
– 1840s-1850s - 2 largest groups Irish & Germans
– Late 1800s - 1870s-1890s - 75% NW Europe; Germans &
Irish continued & Scandinavians; pull factor Industrial
Revolution
– Early 1900s- peak levels 1910; many from Southern and
Eastern Europe, esp. Italy, Russia, Austria-Hungary
Immigration since 1945
• Restrictions against Asians lifted in 1960s: China,
Philippines, India, Vietnam
• Many came as refugees
• Many went to Canada
• Another major source is Latin America with Mexico
topping 8 million
• 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act government issued visas to several hundred thousand
people who had previously entered illegally
Intraregional Migrations
• Within USA, African-Americans began migrating from
South to North during WWI and in the 1940s; 1970s
countertrend of African Americans moving back
South
• Dislocation due to ethnic strife, war, or natural
disasters
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South Asia - Afghanistan - Pakistan
Southeast Asia - Vietnam - Cambodia
Balkans - collapse of Yugoslavia
Sub-Saharan Africa - Rwanda, Sudan
Migration Selectivity
• =Tendency for certain types of people to move
influenced by
– 1. Age - young people, 18-30 and their children
– 2. Education - higher levels of education more
likely to migrate long distances; follow one’s
career in professions; danger of brain drains
– 3. Kinship and friendship ties - chain migration;
ethnic neighborhoods such as “Little Italies” and
“Chinatowns”
Short Term Circulation & Activity Space
• Activity Space - area in which an individual
moves about as he or she pursues regular, dayto-day activities
• Factors affecting activity spaces:
– Age group - younger by foot/bicycle; older by car;
retired activity space shrinks
– Ability to travel - suburbs vs. city; LDC vs. MDC;
income level
– Opportunities to travel - self-sufficient families,
poverty, & physical isolation reduce
awareness
space
Space-Time Prism
• All people live within a space-time prism that
sets the limits for their activities
• They have only so much time to be mobile and
their space is limited by their ability to move
Cultural Patterns and Processes
Unit Three
Basic Definitions:
• Cultural landscape - modification of the
natural landscape by human activities
• Cultural geography - transformation of the
land and ways that humans interact with the
environment
• Cultural ecology - studies relationship
between natural environment and culture
Schools of Thought in Cultural
Geography
• Environmental determinism - physical environment
actively shapes cultures so that human responses are almost completely
molded by environment
• Possibilism - cultural heritage is at least as important as physical
environment in shaping human behavior
• Environmental perception - emphasizes importance of
human perception of environment rather than actual character of the land;
shaped by culture
• Cultural determinism - human culture ultimately more
important than physical environment in shaping human actions
Concepts of Culture
• Culture = mix of values, beliefs, behaviors, &
material objects that together form a people’s
way of life
• Non-material culture = abstract concepts of
values, beliefs, behaviors
– Values = culturally-defined standards that guide way people assess
desirability, goodness and beauty & serve as guidelines for moral living
– Beliefs = specific statements people hold to be true, almost always based on
values
• Material Culture = includes wide range of
concrete human creations = artifacts
Cultural Hearths
• Areas where civilizations first began that
radiated the customs, innovations, and
ideologies that culturally transformed the
world
• Developed in SW Asia, North Africa, South
Asia, East Asia - river valleys
Cultural Diffusion
• Expansion diffusion
– Contagious diffusion
– Hierarchical diffusion
– Stimulus diffusion
• Relocation diffusion
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Acculturation
Assimilation
Transculturation
Ethnocentrism
Cultural relativism
Syncretism
Language = key to culture
• =systematic means of communicating ideas
and feelings through the use of signs,
gestures, marks, or vocal sounds
• Also allows for continuity of culture (cultural
transmission)
• Writing invented 5000 years ago
• Most people illiterate until 20th century
Languages
• Currently between 5000-6000 languages
• 10 languages spoken by 100+ million people:
Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, German,
Mandarin and Wu Chinese, English, Hindi,
Bengali, Arabic, and Japanese
• Linguistic fragmentation = many languages
spoken especially by a relatively small number
of people; ex. Eastern Europe
Language Families
• Languages usually grouped into families with a
shared, fairly distant origin
• Indo-European family - languages spoken by
half the world’s people, English most widely
used; thought to be rooted in Black Sea area
• Other families = Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Congo,
Dravidian, American Indian
• Standard languages - recognized by govt and
intellectual elite as norm for use in schools, govt,
media, & other aspects of public life
• Official languages - language endorsed & recognized
by govt as one that everyone should know and use
• Dialects - regional variants of a standard language
• Isoglosses - boundaries within which words are
spoken
• Bilingualism - ability to communicate in 2 languages
• Multilingualism - ability to communicate in more than 2
languages
• Pidgin - amalgamation of languages that borrows words
from several
• Creole - when a pidgin becomes the first language of a
group of speakers
• Lingua franca - established language that comes to be
spoken & understood over a large area
• Toponymy - study of place names
– “town”, “ton”, “burgh”, or “ville” = town
Extinct Languages
• Ex. Gothic, died out in 16th century
• Some organizations try to preserve
endangered languages like European Union’s
Bureau of Lesser Used Languages; ex. Welsh in
Wales, Quecha in Peru
Religion
• Varies in its cultural influence
• Distinguished from other belief systems by emphasis
on the sacred and divine
• Explains anything that surpasses the limits of human
knowledge
• Affected most societies in history but today has been
replaced in some places by new ideas
– Humanism - ability of humans to guide their own lives
– Marxism - communism
Religions
• Universalizing Religions = Christianity, Islam,
Buddhism; 60% of world’s religions
• Ethnic Religions = appeal primarily to one
group of people living in one place; 24% of
world’s religions
• 16% of world identifies with no religion
Divisions within religion
• Branches - large, basic divisions within religion
• Denominations - divisions of branches that
unite local groups in a single administrative
body
• Sects - relatively small groups that do not
affiliate with the more mainstream
denominations
Christianity
• 2 billion followers
• Most widespread distribution
• Predominant religion in North & South America,
Europe & Australia
• 3 major branches:
– Roman Catholic - 50%
– Protestant - 25%
– Eastern Orthodox - 10%
• Remaining 15% cannot be categorized into the 3 main
branches
Religion in the United States
• Over 50% Protestant
• 25% Catholic
• 2% Jewish
• What about the Mormons?
Islam
• 1.3 billion adherents
• Predominant in Middle East from North Africa to
Central Asia
• About half of world’s Muslims live in Indonesia,
Pakistan, Bangladesh and India
• Growing faster than Christianity
• 7-10 million Muslims in USA
• Youngest of world religions
Divisions of Islam
• Sunni - 83% of Muslims; Indonesia largest
concentration
• Shiite - 16% of Muslims; concentrated in Iran,
Pakistan, Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan
and Yemen
• Split occurred over the rightful successor of
Muhammad
Buddhism
• 365 million followers
• Began on Indian subcontinent
• Diffused through Silk Road and water routes
across Indian Ocean to East and Southeast
Asia
3 Main Branches of Buddhism
• Mahayana - 56% - “Big Wheel” - East Asia
• Theraveda - 38% - stricter adherence to
Buddha’s teachings - Southeast Asia
• Tantrayana - 6% - Tibet and Mongolia
• Accurate count difficult because eastern
religions don’t require followers to identify
with one religion
Other Universalizing Religions
• Sikhism - 21 million in Punjab region of India;
combo Hinduism and Islam; founder Guru
Nanak
• Baha’i - founded in 1844, most in Iran, viewed
by some Shiite Muslims as heretics, believe in
a different prophet
Ethnic Religions
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Hinduism
Confucianism
Daoism
Shintoism
Judaism
Shamanism
Spatial Impact
• Large cities - tallest, most centralized &
elaborate buildings are often religious
structures
• Churches, mosques, temples, synagogues,
pagodas
• Bodhi trees in Buddhist areas
• How religions dispose of the dead
Taboo?
• - defined as:
– a restriction on behavior imposed by a social
custom.
– COMMON TABOO ITEMS
• FOODS, RELATIONSHIPS, LANGUAGE,
OBSCENITY, ETC..
• RESEARCH- TABOO’S
Why Is Folk Culture Clustered?
– Folk housing and the environment
• Housing = a reflection of cultural heritage,
current fashion, function, and the physical
environment
• most common building materials = wood &brick
• Minor differences in the environment can
produce very different house styles
Hearths of House Types
Figure 4-12
U.S. House Types (1945–1990)
Figure 4-16
House Types in Four Western
Chinese Communities
Figure 4-9
Popular & Folk Culture
• Folk = traditionally practiced by small,
homogeneous groups living in isolated rural
areas
• Popular = found in large heterogeneous
societies that are bonded by a common
culture despite the many differences among
the people that share it
Folk Culture
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Controlled by tradition
Resistant to change
Self-sufficient
Example - Amish
Relatively isolated
Usually agricultural with limited technology
Ex. Dutch wearing wooden shoes to adapt to working
in wet fields below sea level
• Ex. Hindu taboos against eating beef
• Housing styles - based on environment materials
Why Is Folk Culture Clustered?
– Folk housing and the environment
• Housing = a reflection of cultural heritage,
current fashion, function, and the physical
environment
• most common building materials = wood &brick
• Minor differences in the environment can
produce very different house styles
Hearths of House Types
Figure 4-12
U.S. House Types (1945–1990)
Figure 4-16
House Types in Four Western
Chinese Communities
Figure 4-9
Folk Music
• North American folk music began as
immigrants carried their songs to the New
World but became Americanized and then new
songs about American experiences
• Regions
– Northern song section
– Southern and Appalachian song area
– Western song area
– Black Song Style Family
Popular Culture
• Primarily urban based
• General mass of people conforming to and
then abandoning ever-changing cultural trends
• Breeds homogeneity
• Pop culture takes on a national character
• Globalization of pop culture has caused
resentment
Environmental impact of popular culture
• Uniform landscapes - fast food restaurants, chain
hotels, gas stations, convenience stores; designed so
residents and visitors immediately recognize purpose
of building or name of company
• Increased demand for natural resources - fads
demand animal skins; consumption of food not
efficient to produce (ex. 1 lb beef requires animal
consuming 10 lbs grain; ratio for chicken 1 to 3)
• Pollution - high volume of wastes
Cultural Landscape = Cultural Identity
• Landscapes & values = Native Americans vs.
Europeans
• Landscapes & identity = people express culture by
transforming elements into symbols like flags,
slogans, religious icons, landscaping and house styles
– Can clash like Muslim practice of never depicting Allah or
Muhammad in drawings clashed with western freedom of
press with Danish cartoon in 2005
• Symbolic landscapes = all landscapes are symbolic signs and images convey messages