Transcript Chapter 19 - William Stallings, Data and Computer

Data and Computer
Communications
Chapter 19 – Internetwork Operation
Ninth Edition
by William Stallings
Data and Computer Communications, Ninth
Edition by William Stallings, (c) Pearson
Education - Prentice Hall, 2011
Internetwork Operation
Prior to the recent explosion of sophisticated research, scientists
believed that birds required no special awareness or intelligence to
perform their migrations and their navigational and homing feats.
Accumulated research shows that in addition to performing the
difficult tasks of correcting for displacement (by storms, winds,
mountains, and other hindrances), birds integrate an astonishing
variety of celestial, atmospheric, and geological information to
travel between their winter and summer homes. In brief, avian
navigation is characterized by the ability to gather a variety of
informational cues and to interpret and coordinate them so as to
move closer toward a goal.
—The Human Nature of Birds,
Theodore Barber
Multicasting
 sending
packet to addresses referring to
group of hosts on one or more networks





multimedia “broadcast” (IPTV, radio, …)
Teleconferencing (webinars,..)
database
distributed computing
real time workgroups
LAN Multicast
 LAN




multicast is easy
easy!
send to IEEE 802 multicast MAC address
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicast_address#Ethernet
those in multicast group will accept it
only single copy of packet is needed
a
transmission from any one station is
received by all other stations on LAN

Note: On the Internet, multicast traffic is
controlled by the service provider (ISP) => can
be allowed or denied.
Example
Configuration
Broadcast / Multiple Unicast /
Multicast
broadcast packet to each network
• if server does not know members of group
• requires 13 packets
could send multiple unicast packets
• to each network with members in multicast group
• requires 11 packets
true multicast
• spanning tree
• replicated by routers at branch points
• requires 8 packets
Traffic Generated by Various
Multicasting Strategies
Multicast Example
Requirements for
Multicasting
 router
may have to forward more than one
copy of packet
 need convention to identify multicast
addresses (IPv4 Class D, IPv6)
 nodes translate between IP multicast
addresses and list of networks containing
group members
 router must translate between IP multicast
address and LAN multicast address
Cont…
Requirements for
Multicasting
 On
the “leaves” (clients) of the spanning
tree, packets are formed using Ethernet
multicast address
 Example:

If one computer joined the class D address 230.1.2.3,
then the packet will use the Ethernet multicast address
01 00 5E 01 02 03 (01, 02 and 03 being single bytes) –
more exactly, the low 23 bits of the IP address is copied
in the last three bytes of the Ethernet address
Cont…
Requirements for
Multicasting
 At
the root (server level), the Ethernet
multicast address is also used to send the
packets.
 When
a switch receives multicast packets,
it repeats packets on all ports, allowing
multicasting on the local network (even if
multicasting is not supported).

http://www.smallnetbuilder.com/lanwan/lanwan-features/30343-multicasting-andthe-small-network-part-2
Cont…
Requirements for
Multicasting
mechanism required for hosts to join and leave
multicast group
2. routers must exchange information
1.


which networks include members of given group
sufficient information to work out shortest path to each
network
routing algorithm to calculate shortest path
4. routers must determine routing paths based on
source and destination addresses
3.
Spanning Tree from Router C
to Multicast Group
How to select a multicast
address
http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_IPMulticastAddressing.htm
• « Well-known » addresses : 224.0.0.0 to 224.0.0.255
• Internet-wide addresses : 224.0.1.0 to 238.255.255.255
• For local use : 239.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
http://www.iana.org/assignments/multicast-addresses/multicastaddresses.xhtml
Internet Group Management
Protocol (IGMP)

RFC 3376 used to exchange multicast group
information between hosts & routers on a LAN
 hosts send messages to routers to subscribe
and unsubscribe from multicast group
 routers check which multicast groups are of
interest to which hosts
 IGMP currently at version 3
Operation of IGMP v1 & v2

IGMPv1
 hosts could join group
 routers used timer to
unsubscribe members
 IGMPv2 enabled hosts to
unsubscribe
 operational model:
 receivers have to
subscribe to groups
 sources do not have to
subscribe to groups
• any host can send traffic
to any multicast group

problems:
 spamming of multicast
groups
 establishment of
distribution trees is
problematic
 finding globally unique
multicast addresses
difficult
IGMP v3
 addresses



weaknesses by:
allowing hosts to specify list from which they
want to receive traffic
blocking traffic from other hosts at routers
allowing hosts to block packets from sources
that send unwanted traffic
IGMP Message Formats
Membership Query



IP datagrams sent by multicast router
Three subtypes: general query (which groups have members on an
attached network), group-specific query (to learn if a particular group has
any members on an attached network), group-and-source specific
query (to learn if any attached device desires reception of packets)
Data part of the IP datagram is structured as follows:
(Membership Query Fields)
type
max response time
checksum
group address
S flag
QRV (querier's robustness variable)
QQIC (querier's querier interval code)
number of sources
source addresses
IGMP Message Formats
Membership Report
(to join a group…)
Next
page
IGMP Message Formats
Group Record
IGMP Operation - Joining
to join, send IGMP membership report message
•
•
•
•
address field multicast address of group
sent in IP datagram
current group members receive & learn new member
routers listen to all IP multicast addresses to hear all reports

IGMP host wants to make itself known as group
member to other hosts and routers on LAN
 IGMPv3 can signal group membership with
filtering capabilities with respect to sources


EXCLUDE mode – all members except those listed
INCLUDE mode – only from group members listed
IGMP Operation –
Keeping Lists Valid
routers periodically
issue IGMP general
query message
• in datagram with allhosts multicast
address
• hosts must read such
datagrams
• hosts respond with
report message
router doesn’t know every
host in a group
• needs to know at least one
group member still active
• each host in group sets
timer with random delay
• host hearing another
report cancels own
• if timer expires, host sends
report
• only one member of each
group reports to router
IGMP Operation - Leaving

host leaves group by sending a leave group
message to the all-routers static multicast
address


sends a membership report message with EXCLUDE
option and null list of source addresses
router determines if have any remaining group
members using group-specific query message
Group Membership with IPv6
 IGMP

defined for IPv4
uses 32-bit addresses
 IPv6
internets need functionality
 IGMP functions included in Internet
Control Message Protocol v6 (ICMPv6)

ICMPv6 has functionality of ICMPv4 + IGMP
 ICMPv6
includes group-membership query
and group-membership report message
Routing Protocols
Routing Protocols
 routers
receive and forward packets
 make decisions based on knowledge of
topology and traffic / delay conditions
 use dynamic routing algorithm
we must distinguish between
• routing information - about topology and delays
• routing algorithm - makes routing decisions based on information
Autonomous Systems (AS)
a
group of routers and networks managed
by a single organization (Ex. : UQAC)
 exchange information via a common
routing protocol
 form a connected network

at least one path between any pair of nodes,
except in times of failure
Interior Router Protocol (IRP) &
Exterior Routing Protocol (ERP)


may have more than one AS
in internet

routing algorithms &
tables may differ
between them
routers need information on
networks outside their own
AS

use an exterior router
protocol (ERP) for this

supports summary
information on AS
reachability
interior router protocol
(IRP)
• passes routing information
between routers within AS
• can be tailored to specific
applications
• needs detailed model of
network to function
Application of IRP and ERP
IRP information
Approaches to Routing
1) Distance-vector

each node (router or host) exchanges information
with neighboring nodes
 first generation routing algorithm for ARPANET
 each node maintains vector of link costs for each
directly attached network, as well as distance and
next-hop vectors for each destination
 requires transmission of considerable information
by routers (neighbor to neighbor…)


distance vector and estimated path costs
changes could take a long time to propagate
Approaches to Routing
2) Link-state

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


designed to overcome drawbacks of distance-vector
each router determines link cost on each of its interfaces
advertises set of link costs to all other routers in topology
(not just to neighboring routers)
if link costs change, router advertises new values
each router constructs topology of entire configuration




can calculate shortest path to each destination
used to construct routing table with first hop to each destination
do not use distributed routing algorithm, but any suitable
algorithm to determine shortest paths
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a link-state protocol
ERP
Disadvantages of Exterior
Routing Protocols

link-state and distance-vector are not effective
for exterior router protocol
distancevector
• assumes routers share common
distance metric
• different ASs may have different
priorities and needs
• have no information on AS’s visited
along route
link-state
• different ASs may use different
metrics and have different restrictions
• flooding of link state information to all
routers is unmanageable
Exterior Router Protocols
-> use Path-vector

Alternative : path-vector routing protocol

provides information about :
• destinations -> which networks can be reached by a given
router
• paths -> ASs crossed to get there
• Next router

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does not include distance or cost estimate
dispenses with (get rid of) concept of routing metrics

have list of all ASs visited on a route
 enables router to perform policy routing



eg. avoid path to avoid transiting particular AS
eg. link speed, capacity, tendency to become congested, and
overall quality of operation, security
eg. minimizing number of transit ASs
Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP)





developed for use with TCP/IP internets
preferred ERP of the Internet
uses messages sent over TCP connection
current version is BGP-4 (RFC1771)
functional procedures



neighbor acquisition - when two routers agree to
exchange information
neighbor reachability - to maintain relationship
network reachability - to update database of routes
(BGP Messages)
(Message Types Open and Keepalive)
 router
makes TCP connection to neighbor
open message
•
•
•
•
sent by connection initiator
includes proposed hold time
receiver uses minimum of own/sent hold time
max time between Keepalive and/or Update
 Keep

Alive message
to tell other routers that this router is still here
(Message Types – Update)
update message conveys two
information types
information on a route uses
three fields
information about
single routes through
internet
Network Layer
Reachability
Information (NLRI)
list of routes being
withdrawn
Total Path Attributes
Length
Path Attributes
 withdraw
address
route identified by destination IP
(Message Types – Update)



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

Origin - IGP or EGP
AS_Path - list of AS traversed
Next_hop - IP address of border router
Multi_Exit_Disc - info on routers internal to AS
Local_pref - inform routers in AS of route
preference
Atomic_Aggregate, Aggregator - implement
route aggregation to reduce amount of
information
(AS_Path and Next_Hop Use)

AS_Path

used to implement
routing policies
• eg. to avoid a particular
AS, security,
performance, quality,
number of AS crossed

Next_Hop


only a few routers
implement BGP
responsible for
informing outside
routers of routes to
other networks in AS
(Notification Message)
 sent
when some error condition is detected
 message header error
 open message error
 update message error
 hold time expired
 finite state machine error
 cease
BGP Routing Information
Exchange
 within
AS, a router builds topology picture
using IGP
 router issues Update message to other
routers outside AS using BGP
 these routers exchange information with
other routers in other AS

AS_Path field used to prevent loops
 routers
must then decide best routes
Open Shortest Path First
(RFC2328)

IGP of Internet
 replaced Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
uses Link State Routing Algorithm
• each router keeps list of state of local links to network
• transmits update state info
• little traffic as messages are small and not sent often

uses least cost based on user cost metric
topology stored as directed graph
• vertices or nodes (router, transit or stub network)
• edges (between routers or router to network)
Example
OSPF AS
Directed
Graph of
AS
(compare this slide with previous
one)
(Shortest
path first)
SPF Tree
for
Router 6
(compare this slide with
previous one and observe
paths between R6 and R4, and
between R6 and R7)
Similar to Dijkstra’s algorithm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijkstra's_algorithm
See illustration (animated)
Routing Table for R6
Mobile IP
 enables
computers to maintain Internet
connectivity (same IP address) while
moving from one Internet attachment point
to another (not to be confused with temporary IP address allocation)
 particularly suited for wireless connections
 mobile implies:



a user is connected to one or more
applications across the Internet
the user’s point of attachment changes
dynamically
all connections are automatically maintained
despite the change
Operation of Mobile IP
 In
a TCP/IP network, routers use the IP
address in an IP datagram to perform
routing
 network portion is used to move a
datagram to the network the target
computer is attached to
 final router uses the host portion to deliver
to the destination
Mobile IP Scenario
(triangular routing)
(Basic Capabilities
of Mobile IP)
Mobile IP includes
three basic
capabilities
Discovery
a discovery
procedure is used
to identify
prospective home
and foreign
agents
Registration
authenticated
registration
procedure is used
Tunneling
forwards IP
datagram from a
home address to a
care-of address
(Mobile IP Protocol Support)
Mobile IP
Terminology
(RFC 3334)
(Discovery)
 similar
to the router advertisement process
defined in ICMP
 mobile node is responsible for an ongoing
discovery process
 home or foreign network
 listens for agent advertisement message


compares IP address with home address
If these do not match the mobile node is on a
foreign network
(Use of Lifetime Field)
upon receipt of an agent
advertisement from a
foreign agent the mobile
node records the lifetime
field as a timer
otherwise, node uses
agent solicitation to find
an agent
if timer expires before
receipt of another
advertisement, node
assumes it lost contact
if node has received an
advertisement that is not
expired, node registers
with the new agent
(Use of Network Prefix)
mobile node checks if newly received
agent advertisement is on the same
network as the node’s current care-of
address
if it is not, the node assumes it
moved and registers with
advertisement the node has just
received
(Co-Located Address)
 node
may move to a network that has no
foreign agents or foreign agents are busy

may act as its own foreign agent by using a colocated care-of address
 co-located
care-of address is an IP address
that is associated with the node’s current
interface to a network


can dynamically acquire a temporary IP
address
co-located address may be owned by the node
(Registration)

once care-of address is acquired the mobile
node needs to request the home agent forward
its IP traffic
 registration process:
node sends a
registration
request to the
foreign agent
requesting
forwarding
service

foreign
agent
relays
request to
home
agent
home agent
accepts or
denies request
foreign
agent relays
reply to
node
if node is using a co-located care-of address it
registers directly with its home agent
(Registration Messages)
 registration
operation uses two types of
messages carried in UDP segments
 registration request message includes:





one-bit flags
home address field
home agent field
care-of address field
identification field
 registration


reply message includes:
acceptance code
reason for denial
(Registration Security)
 mobile
IP is designed to resist two types of
attacks:


node pretends to be a foreign agent and
sends registration request to home agent to
divert traffic
malicious agent may replay old registration
messages effectively cutting node from the
network
(Message Authentication)

message
authentication is used
to protect against
registration message
attacks
 authentication
extension includes
the following fields:


security parameter
index (SPI)
authenticator
three types of
authentication
extensions:
• mobile-home
• mobile-foreign
• foreign-home
Tunneling
 once
a mobile node is registered with a
home agent, the agent must be able to
intercept IP datagrams to be forwarded
 references ARP as a possible mechanism
 home agent steals the identity of the
mobile node in order to capture packets
destined for that node
 encapsulation for Mobile IP:



IP-within-IP (RFC 2003)
Minimal (RFC 2004)
generic routing (RFC 1701)
IP-Within-IP Encapsulation
(ref.: Cisco document)
Minimal Encapsulation


the new header is inserted between the original IP
header and the original IP payload
includes the following fields:
Protocol
S
Header checksum
Original source and destination addresses
 fields
in the original IP header modified to form
the new outer IP header are:





Total length
Protocol
Header checksum
Source and destination addresses
Destination address
Summary
 multicasting

IGMP
 routing

BGP, OSPF
 mobile

protocols
IP
operation, discovery, registration, tunneling