Transcript Module 4: Processes

Computer Networks
Chapter 3: Internetworking
Problems
 In Chapter 2 we talked about how to
connect one node to another, or to an
existing network.
 How do we interconnect different types
of networks to build a large global
network?
CN_3.2
Chapter Outline
 3.1 Switching and Bridging
 3.2 Basic Internetworking (IP)
 3.3 Routing
CN_3.3
Chapter Goal
 Understanding the functions of switches,
bridges and routers
 Discussing Internet Protocol (IP) for
interconnecting networks
 Understanding the concept of routing
CN_3.4
3.1 Switching and Forwarding
 Store-and-Forward Switches
 Bridges and Extended LANs
 Cell Switching
 Segmentation and Reassembly
CN_3.5
Switching and Forwarding
 Switch
 A mechanism that allows us to
interconnect links to form a large
network
 A multi-input, multi-output device which
transfers packets from an input to one
or more outputs
CN_3.6
Switching and Forwarding
 Adds the star topology to the point-to-point link,
bus (Ethernet), and ring (802.5 and FDDI)
topologies
Switch
CN_3.7
Switching and Forwarding
 Properties of this star topology
 Even though a switch has a fixed number of
inputs and outputs, large networks can be
built by interconnecting a number of
switches
 We can connect switches to each other and
to hosts using point-to-point links
 Adding a new host to the switch does not
mean that the hosts already connected will
get worse performance from the network
CN_3.8
Switching and Forwarding
 The last claim cannot be made for the shared
media network (discussed in Chapter 2)
 Two hosts on the same Ethernet can not
transmit continuously at 10Mbps because they
share the same transmission medium
 Every host on a switched network has its own
link to the switch
Many hosts are allowed to transmit
at the full link
speed (bandwidth) provided that the switch is
designed with enough aggregate capacity
CN_3.9
Switching and Forwarding
 A switch is connected to a set of links and
for each of these links, runs the
appropriate data link protocol (MAC) to
communicate with that node
 A switch’s primary job is to receive
incoming packets on one of its links and to
transmit them on some other link
 This function is referred as switching and
forwarding
CN_3.10
Switching and Forwarding
 How does the switch decide which output port to
place each packet on?
 It looks at the header of the packet for an
identifier that it uses to make the decision
 Two common approaches
Datagram
or Connectionless approach
Virtual circuit or Connection-oriented
approach
 A third approach source routing is less common
CN_3.11
Switching and Forwarding
 Assumptions
 Each host has a globally unique address
 There is some way to identify the input
and output ports of each switch
We can use numbers or names
CN_3.12
Switching and Forwarding
 Datagrams
 Key Idea
Every packet contains enough
information to enable any switch to
decide how to get it to destination
– Every packet contains the complete
destination address
CN_3.13
Switching and Forwarding
An example network
 To decide how to forward a packet, a switch consults a
forwarding table (sometimes called a routing table)
CN_3.14
Switching and Forwarding
Destination
Port
----------------------------------------------A
3
B
0
C
3
D
3
E
2
F
1
G
0
H
0
Forwarding Table for Switch 2
CN_3.15
Switching and Forwarding
 Characteristics of Connectionless (Datagram) Network



A host can send a packet anywhere at any time, since any packet
that turns up at the switch can be immediately forwarded
(assuming a correctly populated forwarding table)
When a host sends a packet, it has no way of knowing if the
network is capable of delivering it or if the destination host is
even up and running
Each packet is forwarded independently of previous packets that
might have been sent to the same destination.


Thus two successive packets from host A to host B may follow
completely different paths
A switch or link failure might not have any serious effect on
communication if it is possible to find an alternate route around
the failure and update the forwarding table accordingly
CN_3.16
Switching and Forwarding
 Virtual Circuit Switching
 Widely used technique for packet switching
 Uses the concept of virtual circuit (VC)
 Also called a connection-oriented model
 First set up a virtual connection from the
source host to the destination host and then
send the data
CN_3.17
Switching and Forwarding
 Host A wants to send packets to host B
CN_3.18
Switching and Forwarding
 Two-stage process

Connection setup

Data Transfer
 Connection setup

Establish “connection state” in each of the switches
between the source and destination hosts

The connection state for a single connection consists
of an entry in the “VC table” in each switch through
which the connection passes
CN_3.19
Switching and Forwarding
 One entry in the VC table on a single switch contains

A virtual circuit identifier (VCI) that uniquely identifies the
connection at this switch and that will be carried inside the
header of the packets that belong to this connection

An incoming interface on which packets for this VC arrive at the
switch

An outgoing interface in which packets for this VC leave the
switch

A potentially different VCI that will be used for outgoing
packets
Incoming
Interface
Incoming VC
Outgoing
Interface
Outgoing VC
2
5
1
11
CN_3.20
Switching and Forwarding
 The semantics for one such entry is
 If a packet arrives on the designated
incoming interface and that packet contains
the designated VCI value in its header,
 then the packet should be sent out the
specified outgoing interface with the
specified outgoing VCI value
CN_3.21
Switching and Forwarding
Note:



The combination of the VCI and the interface uniquely
identifies the virtual connection
There may be many virtual connections established in
the switch at one time
Incoming and outgoing VCI values are not generally the
same
 VCI is not a globally significant identifier for
the connection;
rather it has significance only on a given link

Whenever a new connection is created, we need to
assign a new VCI for that connection on each link that
the connection will traverse
CN_3.22
Switching and Forwarding
 Two approaches to establishing connection state

Network Administrator configures the state
 The virtual circuit is permanent (PVC)
 The network administrator can delete it
 Can be thought of as a long-lived or administratively
configured VC

A host can send messages into the network to
establish the state
 This is referred as signalling and the resulting virtual circuit is
said to be switched (SVC)
 A host may set up and delete such a VC dynamically without
the involvement of a network administrator
CN_3.23
Switching and Forwarding
 Assume that a network administrator wants to
manually create a new virtual connection from
host A to host B

First the administrator identifies a path through the
network from A to B
CN_3.24
Switching and Forwarding
 The administrator then picks a VCI value that is
currently unused on each link for the connection

For our example,
Suppose the VCI value 5 is chosen for the link from
host A to switch 1
11 is chosen for the link from switch 1 to switch 2
So the switch 1 will have an entry in the VC table
Incoming
Interface
Incoming VC
2
5
Outgoing
Interface
Outgoing VC
1
11
Switch 1
CN_3.25
Switching and Forwarding
Similarly, suppose

VCI of 7 is chosen to identify this connection on the link from
switch 2 to switch 3

VCI of 4 is chosen for the link from switch 3 to host B

Switches 2 and 3 are configured with the following VC table
Incoming
Interface
Incoming VC
3
11
Incoming
Interface
Incoming VC
0
7
Outgoing
Interface
Outgoing VC
2
7
Switch 2
Outgoing
Interface
Outgoing VC
1
4
Switch 3
CN_3.26
Switching and Forwarding
 For any packet that A wants to send to B, A puts the VCI
value 5 in the header of the packet and sends it to switch 1
 Switch 1 receives any such packet on interface 2, and it uses
the combination of the interface and the VCI in the packet
header to find the appropriate VC table entry.
 The table entry on switch 1 tells the switch to forward the
packet out of interface 1 and to put the VCI value 11 in the
header
CN_3.27
Switching and Forwarding
 Packet will arrive at switch 2 on interface 3 bearing VCI 11
 Switch 2 looks up interface 3 and VCI 11 in its VC table and
sends the packet on to switch 3 after updating the VCI
value 7
 This process continues until it arrives at host B with the VCI
value of 4 in the packet
 To host B, this identifies the packet as having come from
host A
CN_3.28
Switching and Forwarding
 In real networks of reasonable size, the burden
of configuring VC tables correctly in a large
number of switches would quickly become
excessive

Thus, some sort of signalling is almost always used,
even when setting up “permanent” VCs

In case of PVCs, signalling is initiated by the network
administrator

SVCs are usually set up using signalling by one of the
hosts
CN_3.29
Switching and Forwarding
 How does the signalling work ?

To start the signalling process, host A sends a setup
message into the network (i.e. to switch 1)
The setup message
contains the complete
destination address of B.
The setup message
needs to get all the way to B to
create the connection state in every switch along
the way
It is like sending
a datagram to B where every
switch knows which output to send the setup
message so that it eventually reaches B
Assume
that every switch knows the topology to
figure out how to do that
CN_3.30
Switching and Forwarding
 How does the signalling work ?

When switch 1 receives the connection request, in
addition to sending it on to switch 2, it creates a new
entry in its VC table for this new connection
The entry
is exactly the same shown before
Switch 1 picks the value 5

for this connection
When switch 2 receives the setup message, it performs
the similar process and it picks the value 11 as the
incoming VCI
CN_3.31
Switching and Forwarding
 How does the signalling work ?

Similarly switch 3 picks 7 as the value for its incoming
VCI

Finally the setup message arrives at host B.

Assuming that B is healthy and willing to accept a
connection from host A, it allocates an incoming VCI
value, in this case 4.
This
VCI value can be used by B to identify all packets
coming from A
CN_3.32
Switching and Forwarding
 Now to complete the connection, everyone needs to be
told what their downstream neighbor is using as the VCI
for this connection

Host B sends an acknowledgement of the connection
setup to switch 3 and includes in that message the VCI
value that it used (4)

Switch 3 completes the VC table entry for this
connection and sends the acknowledgement on to
switch 2 specifying the VCI of 7

Switch 2 completes the VC table entry for this
connection and sends acknowledgement on to switch 1
specifying the VCI of 11

Finally switch 1 passes the acknowledgement on to host
A telling it to use the VCI value of 5 for this connection
CN_3.33
Switching and Forwarding
 Tear Down
 When host A no longer wants to send data to host
B, it tears down the connection by sending a
teardown message to switch 1
 The switch 1 removes the relevant entry from its
table and forwards the message on to the other
switches in the path which similarly delete the
appropriate table entries
 At this point, if host A sends a packet with a VCI of
5 to switch 1, it would be dropped.
CN_3.34
Switching and Forwarding
 Characteristics of VC

Since host A has to wait for the connection request to
reach the far side of the network and return before it
can send its first data packet, there is at least one RTT
of delay before data is sent

While the connection request contains the full address
for host B (which might be quite large, being a global
identifier on the network), each data packet contains
only a small identifier, which is only unique on one link.
 Thus the per-packet overhead caused by the header is reduced
relative to the datagram model
CN_3.35
Switching and Forwarding
 Characteristics of VC

If a switch or a link in a connection fails, the
connection is broken and a new one will need to be
established.
 Also the old one needs to be torn down to free
up table
storage space in the switches

The issue of how a switch decides which link to
forward the connection request on has similarities
with the function of a routing algorithm
CN_3.36
Switching and Forwarding
 Good Properties of VC

By the time the host gets the go-ahead to send data, it
knows quite a lot about the network For example, that there is really a route to the receiver and that
the receiver is willing to receive data

It is also possible to allocate resources to the virtual
circuit at the time it is established
Bandwidth > kMbps
Delay < limitation bound
Buffer size
CN_3.37
Switching and Forwarding
 For example, an X.25 network – a packet-switched
network that uses the connection-oriented
model – employs the following three-part strategy

Buffers are allocated to each virtual circuit when the
circuit is initialized

The sliding window protocol is run between each pair
of nodes along the virtual circuit, and this protocol is
augmented with the flow control to keep the sending
node from overrunning the buffers allocated at the
receiving node

The circuit is rejected by a given node if not enough
buffers are available at that node when the connection
request message is processed
CN_3.38
Switching and Forwarding
 Comparison with the Datagram Model

Datagram network has no connection establishment
phase and each switch processes each packet
independently

Each arriving packet competes with all other packets
for buffer space

If there are no buffers, the incoming packet must be
dropped
CN_3.39
Switching and Forwarding
 In VC, we could imagine providing each circuit
with a different quality of service (QoS)

The network gives the user some kind of performance
related guarantee
 Switches set aside the resources they need to meet this
guarantee
–
For example, a percentage of each outgoing link’s bandwidth
–
Delay tolerance on each switch
 Most popular examples of VC technologies are
Frame Relay and ATM

One of the applications of Frame Relay is the
construction of VPN
CN_3.40
Switching and Forwarding
 ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
 Connection-oriented packet-switched network
 Packets are called cells
5 byte header
+ 48 byte payload
 Fixed length packets are easier to switch in
hardware
Simpler to design
Enables parallelism
CN_3.41
Switching and Forwarding
 ATM


User-Network Interface (UNI)

Host-to-switch format

GFC: Generic Flow Control

VCI: Virtual Circuit Identifier

Type: management, congestion control

CLP: Cell Loss Priority

HEC: Header Error Check (CRC-8)
Network-Network Interface (NNI)

Switch-to-switch format

GFC becomes part of VPI field
CN_3.42
Switching and Forwarding
 Source Routing

All the information about network topology that is
required to switch a packet across the network is
provided by the source host
CN_3.43
Bridges and
Spanning Tree Algorithm
(IEEE 802.1D)
CN_3.44
Functions of a Bridge
 MAC layer device which relays frames among
physically separated LANs and makes the
physical LANs appear as one logical LAN to
the end stations
7
1
Preamble SFD
6
6
2
DA
SA
LEN
4
LLC
PAD
Bytes
FCS
CN_3.45
Functions of a Bridge
 Basic Functions:

Frame Forwarding

Learning and Filtering

Resolving Possible Loops in the Topology
 Additional Functions:

Congestion Control (Enough Buffer)

Static Filtering (Security)

Translation (Multi-Bridge)

Routing (Multi-Bridge)

Segmentation
CN_3.46
A Simple Bridge Example
LAN A
1
3
2
4
Bridge
LAN B
5
6
7
Stations
CN_3.47
Design Considerations
 No modifications to the content or format of the
frames
 Contain enough buffer space to meet peak
demands
 Contain addressing and routing intelligence
 A bridge may connect more than two networks
 Why Bridged LANs (BLAN) ?




Reliability
Performance
Security
Geography
CN_3.48
Bridge Routing
 The Bridges must be equipped with a
routing capability
 The routing decision may not always be a
simple one (loop)
 Topology changes have to be considered
 A bridge knows all the station addresses
(Filtering Database)
CN_3.49
BLAN Example (Without loop)
Bridge 1
ID=10
1
2
B
A
LAN 1
LAN 3
1
1
Bridge 4
ID=40
2
3
1
Bridge 3
Bridge 2
ID=20
ID=30
2
2
LAN 4
LAN 5
C
D
LAN 6
E
LAN 2
F
CN_3.50
Bridged LAN (BLAN) Example with Loop
1
Station
LAN 1
Bridge 1
Bridge 2
2
LAN 2
3
LAN 3
Bridge 3
Bridge 4
Bridge 5
Bridge 6
Bridge 7
LAN 6
LAN 4
4
5
LAN 5
6
CN_3.51
Bridge Protocol Architecture
Station A
USER
LLC
MAC
PHY
Station D
t1
t2
t3
Bridge
t4
B
MAC
MAC
PHY
PHY
LAN 1
t1, t8
t5
C
t8
t7
t6
LLC
MAC
PHY
LAN 2
User Data
t2, t7
t3, t4, t5, t6
USER
LLC-H
MAC-H
LLC-H
User Data
User Data
MAC-T
CN_3.52
Spanning Tree Routing
 Frame Forwarding and Filtering

Use the destination MAC address (DMAC) field in each MAC frame

A bridge maintains a filtering database with entries:
[Address, Port, Time]
 Address Learning

Use the source MAC address (SMAC) field in each MAC frame

If the element is already in the database, the entry is updated and
the timer is reset

If the element is not in the database, a new entry is created with its
own timer
7
1
6
6
Preamble SFD DMAC SMAC
2
LEN
4
LLC
PAD
Bytes
FCS
CN_3.53
Filtering Database Examples
Filtering Database（Bridge 1）
LAN 1
F
E
A
B
C
D
E
F
1
Bridge1
2
B
A
MAC Addr Port
LAN 2
1
LAN 4
C
2
2
2
2
1
1
20
18
25
4
5
12
Filtering Database（Bridge 2）
Bridge 2
2
3
LAN 3
Time (S)
D
MAC Addr
Port
Time(S)
A
B
C
D
E
F
1
1
2
3
1
1
19
17
24
3
6
13
CN_3.54
Forwarding
and Address
Learning
Algorithm
Frame
Forwarding
N
Frame from
Port x
DMAC in FDB
？
Y
Forward to
all ports
（except
port x）
Address
Learning
Belong to
Port x ？
Filter
Y
N
Forward to
belonging Port
SMAC in
FDB ？
Y
Change to port
X, reset timer
N
Add SMAC, port (x)
and Timer (0) into FDB
End
CN_3.55
Addresses Learning Example
1. A -> E
MAC Port
MAC
MAC Port
Port
FDB
2. B -> D
FDB
3. C -> B
4. D -> A
5. E -> C
Bridge X
2
LAN 2
1
LAN 1
A
2
Bridge
Y
3
LAN 4
LAN 3
C
Bridge Z
2
1
B
1
D
LAN 5
E
CN_3.56
Addresses Learning Example (AE)
MAC Port
A
MAC
1
Bridge X
2
ELAN
A 2
1
ELAN
A 1
A
A
FDB
2
MAC Port
Port
2
Bridge
Y
3
ELAN
A 4
E LAN
A 3
C
1
1
Bridge Z
2
1
B
A
FDB
D
ELAN
A 5
E
CN_3.57
Addresses Learning Example (BD)
MAC Port
A
B
MAC
1
2
Bridge X
2
DLAN
B 2
1
DLAN
B 1
A
A
B
FDB
2
MAC Port
Port
2
2
Bridge
Y
3
DLAN
B 4
DLAN
B 3
C
1
1
1
Bridge Z
2
1
B
A
B
FDB
D
DLAN
B 5
E
CN_3.58
Addresses Learning Example (CB)
MAC Port
A
B
C
MAC
1
2
2
Bridge X
2
BLAN
C 2
1
LAN 1
A
A
B
C
FDB
2
MAC Port
Port
2
2
1
Bridge
Y
3
LAN 4
BLAN
C 3
C
1
1
1
Bridge Z
2
1
B
A
B
FDB
D
LAN 5
E
CN_3.59
Addresses Learning Example (DA)
MAC Port
A
B
C
D
MAC
1
2
2
2
Bridge X
2
ALAN
D 2
1
ALAN
D 1
A
A
B
C
D
FDB
2
MAC Port
Port
2
2
1
3
Bridge
Y
3
A LAN
D 4
LAN 3
C
1
1
1
1
Bridge Z
2
1
B
A
B
D
FDB
D
LAN 5
E
CN_3.60
Addresses Learning Example (EC)
MAC Port
A
B
C
D
MAC
1
2
2
2
Bridge X
2
LAN 2
1
LAN 1
A
A
B
C
D
E
FDB
2
MAC Port
Port
2
2
1
3
3
Bridge
Y
3
CLAN
E 4
CLAN
E 3
C
1
1
1
1
2
Bridge Z
2
1
B
A
B
D
E
FDB
D
CLAN
E 5
E
CN_3.61
Loop Problems and Resolution
 Loops provides reliability
 Loops make frames duplication
 Loops make wrong address learning
B
t2
LAN 1
B A
2
BridgeＸ
1
t1
1
BridgeＹ
2
t0
LAN 2
B A
B A
A
CN_3.62
Spanning Tree Example 1
LAN 1
1
1
Bridge 2
2
1
Bridge 3
2
Bridge 1
2
LAN 2
1
Bridge 4
2
LAN 3
1
2
LAN 4
3
Bridge 5
LAN 5
CN_3.63
Graph Representation of a BLAN
LAN
Spanning Tree
1
1
2
3
3
2
2
3
4
5
4
1
3
2
1
4
5
Bridge
5
4
5
CN_3.64
Spanning Tree Example 1 (Continued)
Bridge 1
ID=10
1
Root Bridge
2
LAN 1
LAN 3
1
2
Bridge 3
Bridge 4
ID=30
ID=40
2
1
1
Bridge 5
ID=50
2
LAN 4
LAN 2
1
3
Bridge 2
ID=20
2
LAN 5
CN_3.65
Spanning Tree Algorithm (requirements)
 Bridges

Each bridge is assigned a unique identifier (8 octets):
 Priority part
(two octets): programmable
 address part (six octets)

A special group MAC address for all bridges :
01-80-C2-00-00-00 (Multicast address)
10000000-00000001-01000011-

Each port of a bridge has a unique port identifier.
CN_3.66
Spanning Tree Algorithm (definitions)
 Root Bridge: The bridge with the lowest value of bridge
identifier.
 Path Cost: For each port, the cost of transmitting a frame
onto a LAN.
 Root Port: For each bridge, the port on the minimum-cost
path to the root bridge.
 Root Path Cost: For each bridge, the cost of the path to
the root bridge with minimum cost.
 Designated Bridge: For each LAN, the bridge that
provides the minimum cost path to the root bridge. The
only bridge allowed to forward frames to and from the
LAN.
 Designated Port: The port of the designated bridge that
CN_3.67
Spanning Tree Example 2
LAN 1
1
1
TC=10
TC=5
Bridge 2
Bridge 3
ID=20
2
1
ID=30
2
TC=5
TC=10
TC=10
Bridge 1
ID=10
2
1
TC=10
LAN 2
TC=5
Bridge 4
ID=40
2
TC=5
LAN 3
1
TC=10
2
TC=5
LAN 4
ID=50
3
TC: Transmission Cost
TC=5
Bridge 5
LAN 5
CN_3.68
Spanning Tree Example 2 (continued)
Bridge 1
ID=10, RPC=0
1
LAN 3
Root Bridge
2
TC=10
TC=10
D
D
LAN 1
R
R
1
2
TC=5
TC=5
Bridge 3
ID=30,RPC=5
2
Bridge 4
ID=40,RPC=5
R
1
TC=5
TC=5
1
TC=10
Bridge 5
ID=50, RPC=10
2
3
TC=5
TC=5
D
D
LAN 4
LAN 5
R
1
D
LAN 2
TC=10
Bridge 2
ID=20,RPC=10
2
TC=10
RPC: Root Path Cost
TC: Transmission Cost
D: Designated Port
R: Root Port
CN_3.69
Spanning Tree Algorithm
 Three Steps:
1. Determine the root bridge.
2. Determine the root port on all other bridges.
3. Determine the designated port on each LAN.
The port with the minimum root path cost.
In the case of two or more bridges with the same
root path cost, the highest-priority bridge is
selected.
If the designated bridge has two or more ports
attached to this LAN, then the port with the lowest
value of identifier is selected.
CN_3.70
Bridge Port State Diagram
Blocking
Selected as
a D or R port
Cancel
Listening
Cancel
Learning
After a forward delay time
Cancel
Forwarding
After a forward delay time
CN_3.71
Bridge Protocol Data Unit (BPDU)
Bytes
2
Protocol ID
1
Version ID
1
BPDU Type
1
Flag
8
Root Bridge ID
4
RPC
8
Bridge ID
2
Root Port ID
2
Message Age
2
Time Limit
2
Hello Time
2
Forward delay
Bytes
2
Protocol ID
1
Version ID
1
BPDU Type
(b)Topology Change BPDU
(a)Network Configuration BPDU
CN_3.72
Spanning Tree Algorithm Example
9
RPC = 20
5
RPC = 25
l
i
TC=15
4
Bridge X
6
j
11
TC=10
7
RPC = 58, R = j
RPC = 35, R = i,
D(W) = j
RPC = 35, R = i
TC=5
4
RPC = 53, R = k
Bridge Y
8
RPC = 40, R = k
10
RPC = 30, R = l,
D(W) = k
k
TC=5
RPC = 35
11
RPC = 30
LAN W
3
RPC = 48
m
TC=10
D(W): Designated
Port of LAN W
Bridge Z
n
2
RPC = 48, R = n, D(W) = m
8
RPC = 45, R = m
RPC = 40, R = m
12
TC=10
1
RPC = 38
CN_3.73
Spanning Tree Algorithm Example (Continued)
R
R
l
i
TC=5
TC=15
Bridge Y
Bridge X
k
j
TC=5
TC=10
D
LAN W
R
m
TC=15
D: Designated Port
R: Root Port
Bridge Z
n
TC=10
CN_3.74
Spanning Tree Features
 The spanning tree constructed by the IEEE 802.1D algorithm
has the features that for each bridge, the shortest path
(minimum root path cost, RPC) to the root bridge is
included.
 For each LAN, the shortest path (minimum root path cost,
RPC) to the root bridge via the designated bridge is
included.
 So the spanning tree usually is not a minimum cost
spanning tree.
 The spanning tree of a BLAN (or switches connected
network) is predictable or deterministic. Thus, given a
BLAN topology (with any loops) and configuration
parameters, the spanning tree of the BLAN can be
calculated manually.
CN_3.75
Spanning Tree Example 3
LAN 7, DPC = 5
LAN 1, DPC = 20
R
D
1
D
1
1
TC=5
TC=5
TC=5
Bridge 2
ID=20,RPC=20
2
Bridge 6
ID=60,RPC=10
2
TC=10
Bridge 7
ID=70,RPC=5
2
TC=5
TC=5
R
D
LAN 2,
DPC = 10
R
LAN 6,
DPC = 0
D
1
TC=10
1
1
TC=15
Bridge 1
ID=10,RPC=0
2
TC=15
Bridge 3
ID=30,RPC=15
2
Bridge 4
ID=40,RPC=15
2
TC=10
TC=15
TC=15
D
R
R
LAN 3,DPC = 0
R
R
1
TC=5
1
TC=5
Bridge 5
Root Bridge
2
TC=5
ID=50,RPC=5
2
D
TC=5
LAN 4,
DPC = 5
3
TC=10
D
LAN 5,
DPC = 5
Bridge 8
ID=80,RPC=5
CN_3.76
Spanning Tree Maintenance
 The transmission of the configuration is triggered by root.
 The root will periodically (once every Hello time) issue a
configuration BPDU on all LANs to which it is attached.
 A bridge that receives a configuration BPDU on what it
decides is its root port passes that information to all LANs
for which it believes itself to be the designated bridge.
 A cascade of configuration BPDUs throughout the spanning
tree.
 A bridge may change the spanning tree topology
 A TCN BPDU is reliable relayed up the new spanning tree to
the root bridge (bridge by bridge).
 The root will set the Topology Change flag in all
configuration messages transmitted for some time.
CN_3.77
Spanning Tree Maintenance Example 1
LAN 7, DPC = 5
LAN 1, DPC = 20
25
R
D
1
D
1
1
TC=5
TC=5
TC=5
Bridge 2
ID=20,RPC=20
2
Bridge 6
ID=60,RPC=10
2
TC=10
Bridge 7
ID=70,RPC=5
2
TC=5
TC=5
LAN 2,
15
DPC = 10
R
R
D
LAN 6,
DPC = 0
D
D
1
TC=10
1
1
TC=15
Bridge 1
ID=10,RPC=0
2
TC=15
Bridge 3
ID=30,RPC=15
2
Bridge 4
ID=40,RPC=15
2
TC=10
TC=15
TC=15
D
R
R
LAN 3,DPC = 0
R
R
1
TC=5
1
TC=5
Bridge 5
Root Bridge
2
TC=5
ID=50,RPC=5
2
D
TC=5
LAN 4,
DPC = 5
3
TC=10
D
LAN 5,
DPC = 5
Bridge 8
ID=80,RPC=5
CN_3.78
Spanning Tree Maintenance Example 1
 Assume Bridge 60 faults.
 Then all the Hello BPDUs sent from root bridge to Bridge
60 will not be forwarded to LAN 2 any more.
 The Bridges 30 and 40 in LAN 2 will trigger the timeout
event individually which means the Designated bridge 60
for LAN 2 was gone.
 Then they will try to serve as the Designated bridge of LAN
2 by forwarding a configuration BPDU.
 Assume bridge 40 sends the BPDU first with a RPC = 15.
 Then bridge 30 will return another BPDU with RPC=15 since
it’s priority is higher than bridge 40 (same RPC, smaller ID).
 After two forwarding delays, bridge 30 will become the
new Designated bridge of LAN2 and the DPC becomes 15.
CN_3.79
Spanning Tree Maintenance Example 1
 Also the DPC of LAN 1 is changed from 15 to 25.
 Bridge 30 then sends a Topology Change Notification (TCN)
BPDU to root bridge.
 The root will set the Topology Change flag in all
configuration messages transmitted for some time.
CN_3.80
Final configuration of example 1
LAN 7, DPC = 5
LAN 1, DPC = 25
D
D
1
1
TC=5
TC=5
Bridge 2
ID=20,RPC=20
2
Bridge 7
ID=70,RPC=5
2
Bridge 6
ID=60
TC=5
TC=10
R
R
LAN 2,
DPC = 15
LAN 6,
DPC = 0
D
D
1
TC=10
1
1
Bridge 1
ID=10,RPC=0
2
TC=15
TC=15
Bridge 3
ID=30,RPC=10
2
Bridge 4
ID=40,RPC=10
2
TC=10
TC=10
TC=10
Root Bridge
D
R
R
R
LAN 3,DPC = 0
R
1
1
TC=5
TC=5
Bridge 5
2
D
2
TC=5
TC=5
ID=50,RPC=5
LAN 4,
DPC = 5
3
TC=10
D
LAN 5,
DPC = 5
Bridge 8
ID=80,RPC=5
CN_3.81
Spanning Tree Maintenance Example 2
LAN 7, DPC = 5
LAN 1, DPC = 20
R
D
1
D
1
1
TC=5
TC=5
TC=5
Bridge 2
ID=20,RPC=20
2
Bridge 6
ID=60,RPC=10
2
TC=10
Bridge 7
ID=70,RPC=5
2
TC=5
TC=5
LAN 2,
DPC = 10
R
R
D
D
R
R
1
TC=10
1
1
TC=15
Bridge 1
ID=10,RPC=0
2
TC=15
Bridge 3
ID=30,RPC=1525
Bridge 4
ID=40,RPC=1525
2
2
D
R
R
LAN 3,DPC = 0
R
R
1
TC=5
1
TC=5
Bridge 5
Root Bridge
TC=10
TC=15
TC=15
Root Bridge
LAN 6,
DPC = 0
2
TC=5
ID=50,RPC=50
R
D
2
TC=5
LAN 4,
DPC = 50
3
TC=10
D
LAN 5,
DPC = 5
Bridge 8
ID=80,RPC=5
CN_3.82
Spanning Tree Maintenance Example 2
 Assume LAN 3 faults.
 Then all the Hello BPDUs sent from root bridge to LAN 3
will be lost.
 All the ports connected to LAN 3, including port 2 of bridge
30, port 2 0f bridge 40, port 1 of bridge 50, and port 1 of
bridge 80, will become “blocked” state from “forwarding”
state.
 All these bridges are now don’t have “R” port (root port)
and then try to be a root bridge.
 Bridges 30 and 40 still can receive the Hello BPDU from
port 1, so they will change their root port to port 1.
CN_3.83
Spanning Tree Maintenance Example 2
 Bridges 50 and 80 will exchange BPDU to compete as a new
root follow the STP protocol.
 Assume bridge 80 sends the BPDU first with a RPC = 0.
 Then bridge 50 will return another BPDU with RPC=0 since
it’s priority is higher than bridge 80 (smaller ID).
 After two forwarding delays, bridge 50 will become the
new root bridge and the port 1 of bridge 80 will become a
root port.
 Finally, we have two separated (disconnected) spanning
trees.
CN_3.84
Final configuration of example 2
LAN 7, DPC = 5
LAN 1, DPC = 20
D
R
D
TC=5
TC=5
TC=5
1
1
1
Bridge 2
ID=20,RPC=20
2
2
2
TC=10
R
Bridge 7
ID=70,RPC=5
Bridge 6
ID=60,RPC=10
TC=5
TC=5
R
D
LAN 2,
DPC = 10
D
1
R
R
1
TC=10
1
TC=15
Bridge 1
ID=10,RPC=0
2
TC=15
Bridge 3
ID=30,RPC=25
2
LAN 6,
DPC = 0
Bridge 4
ID=40,RPC=25
2
Root Bridge
TC=10
TC=10
TC=10
LAN 3
1
1
TC=5
TC=5
Bridge 5
2
TC=5
ID=50,RPC=0
R
D
LAN 4,
DPC = 0
2
3
TC=5
TC=10
D
LAN 5,
DPC = 5
Bridge 8
ID=80,RPC=5
CN_3.85
3.2 Internetworking
 What is internetwork ?

An arbitrary collection of networks interconnected to provide
some sort of host-host to packet delivery service
A simple internetwork where H represents hosts and R represents routers
CN_3.86
Internetworking
 What is IP ?

IP stands for Internet Protocol

Key tool used today to build scalable, heterogeneous
internetworks

It runs on all the nodes in a collection of networks and defines the
infrastructure that allows these nodes and networks to function as
a single logical internetwork
A simple internetwork showing the protocol layers
CN_3.87
IP Service Model
 Packet Delivery Model

Connectionless model for data delivery

Best-effort delivery (unreliable service)
 packets are lost
 packets are delivered out of order
 duplicate copies of a packet are delivered
 packets can be delayed for
a long time
 Global Addressing Scheme

Provides a way to identify all hosts in the network
CN_3.88
How Layer 3 Routers Work ?
 Layer 3 router uses store and forward scheme to
forward incoming IP packets (datagrams).

IP Address Lookup (Forwarding Table constructed
by routing protocols, such as RIP, OSPF, BGP, etc)

IP/MAC mapping table

The IP address lookup is longest prefix matching
lookup.
 Forward IP packet into next hop if the destination IP is
found in the Forwarding Table. Otherwise, forward to
default port.
 New router Architecture with L3 switching Fabric ASICs
IP
Next
140.114.77.0 Directly
140.114.78.0 Directly
140.114.79.0 Router Z
IP
IP(A)
IP(B)
IP(Y)
IP(X)
MAC
MAC(A)
MAC(B)
MAC(Y)
MAC(X)
and IP address lookup ASICs (hardware lookup)
 Wire-speed forwarding design Gbps, 10Gbps, 100Gbps,
…
 Not Plug-and-Play
CN_3.89
IP Datagram Header Format
0
3
version
8
15
19
IHL Type of Service
Identification
Time to Live
31
Total length
Flags
Protocol
Fragment Offset
Header Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options + Padding
Data
CN_3.90
Type of Service (ToS) of IP
0 1
2
Precedence
3
4
5
6
7
D
T
R
O
O
Precedence
Delay
Throughput, Reliability
111 Network Control
110 Internetwork Control
101 CRITIC/ECP
100 Flash Override
011 Flash
010 Immediate
001 Priority
000 Routine
0 Normal
1 Low
0 Normal
1 High
0
0
1
2
DF
MF
Flags
DF
MF
0 May Fragment
1 Don't Fragment
0 Last Fragment
1 More Fragment
CN_3.91
How datagrams are delivered in an Internet ?
H
A
Datagram
R
LAN
LAN
H
R
R
H
H
WAN
H
H
R
R
H
H
LAN
R
LAN
B
CN_3.92
Routers
IP
IP(A)
IP(B)
IP(Y)
IP(X)
IP
Next
140.114.77.0 Directly
140.114.78.0 Directly
140.114.79.0 Router Z
140.114.77.62
HOST X
Higher
Layer
Protocols
MAC
MAC(A)
MAC(B)
MAC(Y)
MAC(X)
B
A ROUTER
Network
Network
MAC
PHY
140.114.77.60
MAC
MAC
A
PHY
PHY
LAN 1
IP = 140.114.77.0
Mask= 255.255.255.0
Higher
Layer
Protocols
Network
MAC
PHY
B
LAN 2
LAN n
IP = 140.114.78.0
Mask= 255.255.255.0
MAC(R)
IP(A) IP(B)
IP(B)
MAC(Y) MAC(B)
IP(Y)
MAC(A)
MAC(R) IP(A)
LAN m
HOST Y
B
140.114.78.66 A
Y
140.114.77.65
ROUTER Z
140.114.78.68
140.114.78.69
IP = 140.114.79.0
Mask= 255.255.255.0
IP Datagram
Datagram
IP
CN_3.93
Intra-LAN and Inter-LAN Communications
 B -> Y (Intra LAN)
MAC(Y) MAC(B) IP(Y) IP(B)
IP Datagram
 B -> A (Inter-LAN)
MAC(R) MAC(B) IP(A) IP(B)
IP Datagram
MAC(A) MAC(R) IP(A) IP(B)
IP Datagram
CN_3.94
An Internet Routing Example
20.0.0.5
Network
10.0.0.0
F
10.0.0.5
30.0.0.6
Network
20.0.0.0
G
Network
30.0.0.0
20.0.0.6
40.0.0.7
H
Network
40.0.0.0
30.0.0.7
To reach hosts Route to
on network
this address
20.0.0.0
Deliver Direct
30.0.0.0
Deliver Direct
10.0.0.0
20.0.0.5
40.0.0.0
30.0.0.7
• Routing Table
CN_3.95
Router Characteristics
 Network Layer Routing

Network layer protocol dependent

Filter MAC broadcast and multicast packets

Easy to support mixed media

Packet fragmentation and reassembly

Filtering on network addresses and information

Accounting
 Direct Communication Between Endpoints and
Routers

Highly configurable and hard to get right

Handle speed mismatch

Congestion control and avoidance
CN_3.96
Router Characteristics (Continued)
 Routing Protocols

Interconnect layer 3 networks and exploit arbitrary topologies

Determine which route to take

Static routing

Dynamic routing protocol support


RIP: Routing Information Protocol

OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
Provides reliability with alternate routes
 Router Management

Troubleshooting capabilities

Name-Address mapping services
CN_3.97
Differences Between Bridges and Routers
Bridges
Routers
Operation at Layer 2
Operation at Layer 3
Protocol Independent
Protocol Dependent
Automatic Address Learning/Filtering
Administration Required for
Address,Interface and Routes
Pass MAC Multicast/Broadcast
MAC M/B can be Filtered
Lower Cost
Higher Cost
No Flow/Congestion Control
Flow/Congestion Control
Limited Security
Complex Security
Transparent to End Systems
Non-Transparency
Well Suited for Simple/Small Networks
For WAN, Larger Networks
No Frames Segmentation/Reassembly
Frames Segmentation/Reassembly
Spanning Tree Based Routing
Optimal Routing and Load Sharing
Plug and Play
Requires Central Administrator
CN_3.98
IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
 Each network has some MTU (Maximum
Transmission Unit)

Ethernet (1500 bytes), FDDI (4500 bytes)
 Strategy

Fragmentation occurs in a router when it receives a
datagram that it wants to forward over a network
which has MTU < datagram

Reassembly is done at the receiving host

All the fragments carry the same identifier in the Ident
field

Fragments are self-contained datagrams

IP does not recover from missing fragments
CN_3.99
IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
IP datagrams traversing the sequence of physical networks
CN_3.100
IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
Header fields used in IP fragmentation. (a) Unfragmented packet;
(b) fragmented packets.
CN_3.101
Global Addresses
 Properties

globally unique

hierarchical: network + host

4 Billion IP address, half are A type, ¼ is B type, and 1/8 is C type
 Format
 Dot notation

10.3.2.4

128.96.33.81

192.12.69.77
CN_3.102
IP Datagram Forwarding
 Strategy






every datagram contains destination's address
if directly connected to destination network, then forward to host
if not directly connected to destination network, then forward to
some router
forwarding table maps network number into next hop
each host has a default router
each router maintains a forwarding table
 Example (router R2)
CN_3.103
IP Datagram Forwarding
 Algorithm
if (NetworkNum of destination = NetworkNum of one of my
interfaces) then
deliver packet to destination over that interface
else
if (NetworkNum of destination is in my forwarding table) then
deliver packet to NextHop router
else
deliver packet to default router
For a host with only one interface and only a default router in its forwarding table, this
simplifies to
if (NetworkNum of destination = my NetworkNum)then
deliver packet to destination directly
else
deliver packet to default router
CN_3.104
Subnetting
 Add another level to address/routing hierarchy: subnet
 Subnet masks define variable partition of host part of class
A and B addresses
 Subnets visible only within site
CN_3.105
Subnetting
128 hosts
128 hosts
256 hosts
 Forwarding Table at Router R1
CN_3.106
Subnetting
Forwarding Algorithm
D = destination IP address
for each entry < SubnetNum, SubnetMask, NextHop>
D1 = SubnetMask & D
if D1 = SubnetNum
if NextHop is an interface
deliver datagram directly to destination
else
deliver datagram to NextHop (a router)
CN_3.107
Subnetting
Notes
 Would use a default router if nothing matches
 Not necessary for all ones in subnet mask to be contiguous
 Can put multiple subnets on one physical network
 Subnets not visible from the rest of the Internet
CN_3.108
Classless Addressing
 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
 A technique that addresses two scaling concerns in the
Internet
 The growth of backbone routing table as more and more
network numbers need to be stored in them
 Potential exhaustion of the 32-bit address space

Address assignment efficiency
 Arises because of the IP address structure with class A, B, and C
addresses
 Forces us to hand out network address space in fixed-size
chunks of three very different sizes
–
A network with two hosts needs a class C address
»
–
Address assignment efficiency = 2/255 = 0.78
A network with 256 hosts needs a class B address
»
Address assignment efficiency = 256/65535 = 0.39
CN_3.109
Classless Addressing
 Exhaustion of IP address space centers on exhaustion of
the class B network numbers
 Solution

Say “NO” to any Autonomous System (AS) that requests a class B
address unless they can show a need for something close to 64K
addresses

Instead give them an appropriate number of class C addresses

For any AS with at least 256 hosts, we can guarantee an address
space utilization of at least 50%
 What is the problem with this solution?
CN_3.110
Classless Addressing
 Problem with this solution
 Excessive storage requirement at the routers.
 If a single AS has, say 16 class C network numbers
assigned to it,

Every Internet backbone router needs 16 entries in its
routing tables for that AS

This is true, even if the path to every one of these
networks is the same
 If we had assigned a class B address to the AS
 The same routing information can be stored in one
entry
 But Efficiency = 16 × 255 / 65, 536 = 6.2%
CN_3.111
Classless Addressing
 CIDR tries to balance the desire to minimize
the number of routes that a router needs to
know against the need to hand out
addresses efficiently.
 CIDR uses aggregate routes
 Uses a single entry in the forwarding table to
tell the router how to reach a lot of different
networks
 Breaks the rigid boundaries between address
classes
CN_3.112
Classless Addressing
 Consider an AS with 16 class C network numbers.
 Instead of handing out 16 addresses at random, hand out a
block of contiguous class C addresses
 Suppose we assign the class C network numbers from
192.4.16 through 192.4.31
 Observe that top 20 bits of all the addresses in this range
are the same (11000000 00000100 0001)

We have created a 20-bit network number (which is in between
class B network number and class C number)
 Requires to hand out blocks of class C addresses that share
a common prefix
CN_3.113
Classless Addressing
 The convention is to place a /X after the prefix
where X is the prefix length in bits
 For example, the 20-bit prefix for all the networks
192.4.16 through 192.4.31 is represented as
192.4.16/20
 By contrast, if we wanted to represent a single
class C network number, which is 24 bits long, we
would write it 192.4.16/24
CN_3.114
Classless Addressing
 How do the routing protocols handle this
classless addresses ?

It must understand that the network number may be
of any length
 Represent network number with a single pair
<length, value>
 All routers must understand CIDR addressing
CN_3.115
Classless Addressing
8 Class C
networks
Route aggregation with CIDR
CN_3.116
IP Forwarding Revised
 IP forwarding mechanism assumes that it can find
the network number in a packet and then look up
that number in the forwarding table
 We need to change this assumption in case of
CIDR
 CIDR means that prefixes may be of any length,
from 2 to 32 bits
CN_3.117
IP Forwarding Revised
 It is also possible to have prefixes in the forwarding tables
that overlap

Some addresses may match more than one prefix
 For example, we might find both


171.69 (a 16 bit prefix) and
171.69.10 (a 24 bit prefix) in the forwarding table of a
single router
 A packet destined to 171.69.10.5 clearly matches both
prefixes.

The rule is based on the principle of “longest match”

171.69.10 in this case
 A packet destined to 171.69.20.5 would match 171.69 and
not 171.69.10
CN_3.118
Address Translation Protocol (ARP)
 Map IP addresses into physical (MAC) addresses

destination host

next hop router
 Techniques

encode physical address in host part of IP address

table-based
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

table of IP to physical address bindings

broadcast request if IP address not in table

target machine responds with its physical address

table entries are discarded if not refreshed
CN_3.119
ARP Packet Format





HardwareType: type of physical network (e.g., Ethernet)
ProtocolType: type of higher layer protocol (e.g., IP)
HLEN & PLEN: length of physical and protocol addresses
Operation: request or response
Source/Target Physical/Protocol addresses
CN_3.120
Host Configurations
 Notes

Ethernet addresses are configured into network by
manufacturer and they are unique

IP addresses must be unique on a given internetwork
but also must reflect the structure of the internetwork

Most host Operating Systems provide a way to
manually configure the IP information for the host

Drawbacks of manual configuration
 A lot of work to configure all the hosts in a large network
 Configuration process is error-prune

Automated Configuration Process is required
CN_3.121
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
 DHCP server is responsible for providing
configuration information to hosts
 There is at least one DHCP server for an
administrative domain
 DHCP server maintains a pool of available
addresses
CN_3.122
DHCP
 Newly booted or attached host sends DHCP DISCOVER
message to a special IP address (255.255.255.255)
 DHCP relay agent unicasts the message to DHCP server
and waits for the response
CN_3.123
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
 Defines a collection of error messages that are sent back
to the source host whenever a router or host is unable to
process an IP datagram successfully

Destination host unreachable due to link /node failure

Reassembly process failed

TTL had reached 0 (so datagrams don't cycle forever)

IP header checksum failed
 ICMP-Redirect

From router to a source host

With a better route information
CN_3.124
3.3 Routing
 Forwarding versus Routing
 Forwarding:
– to select an output port based on
destination address and routing table
 Routing:
– process by which routing table is built
CN_3.125
Routing
 Forwarding table VS Routing table
•Forwarding table
•Used when a packet is being forwarded and so
must contain enough information to accomplish
the forwarding function
•A row in the forwarding table contains the
mapping from a network number to an outgoing
interface and some MAC information, such as
Ethernet Address of the next hop
•Routing table
•Built by the routing algorithm as a precursor to
build the forwarding table
•Generally contains mapping from network
numbers to next hops
CN_3.126
Routing
Example rows from (a) routing and (b) forwarding tables
CN_3.127
Routing
 Network as a Graph
 The basic problem of routing is to find the lowest-cost
path between any two nodes
•Where the cost of a path equals the sum of the costs
of all the edges that make up the path
CN_3.128
Routing
 For a simple network, we can calculate all shortest paths
and load them into some nonvolatile storage on each
node.
 Such a static approach has several shortcomings
•It does not deal with node or link failures
•It does not consider the addition of new nodes or links
•It implies that edge costs cannot change
 What is the solution ?
•Need a distributed and dynamic protocol
•Two main classes of protocols
•Distance Vector
•Link State
CN_3.129
Distance Vector
 Each node constructs a one dimensional array (a vector)
containing the “distances” (costs) to all other nodes and
distributes that vector to its immediate neighbors
 Starting assumption is that each node knows the cost of
the link to each of its directly connected neighbors
CN_3.130
Distance Vector
Initial distances stored at each node (global view)
CN_3.131
Distance Vector
Initial routing table at node A
CN_3.132
Distance Vector
Final routing table at node A
CN_3.133
Distance Vector
Final distances stored at each node (global view)
CN_3.134
Distance Vector
 The distance vector routing algorithm is
sometimes called as Bellman-Ford algorithm
 Every T seconds each router sends its routing
table to its neighbor each router then updates its
table based on the new information
 Problems include
 fast response to good news
 slow response to bad news
 Too many messages to update
CN_3.135
Distance Vector
 When a node detects a link failure
 F detects that link to G has failed
 F sets distance to G to infinity and sends update to A
 A sets distance to G to infinity since it uses F to reach G
 A receives periodic update from C with 2-hop path to G
 A sets distance to G to 3 and sends update to F
 F decides it can reach G in 4 hops via A
CN_3.136
Distance Vector
 Slightly different circumstances can prevent the network
from stabilizing

Suppose the link from A to E goes down

In the next round of updates, A advertises a distance of
infinity to E, but B and C advertise a distance of 2 to E
CN_3.137
Distance Vector

Depending on the exact timing of events, the following
might happen
 Node B, upon hearing that E can be reached in
2 hops from C,
concludes that it can reach E in 3 hops and advertises this to A
 Node A concludes that it can reach E in 4 hops and advertises
this to C
 Node C concludes that it can reach E in 5 hops; and so on.
 This cycle stops only when the distances reach some number
that is large enough to be considered infinite
–
Count-to-infinity problem
CN_3.138
Count-to-infinity Problem
 Use some relatively small number as an approximation of
infinity
 For example, the maximum number of hops to get across a
certain network is never going to be more than 16
 One technique to improve the time to stabilize
routing is called split horizon

When a node sends a routing update to its neighbors, it
does not send those routes it learned from each
neighbor back to that neighbor

For example, if B has the route (E, 2, A) in its table, then
it knows it must have learned this route from A, and so
whenever B sends a routing update to A, it does not
include the route (E, 2) in that update
CN_3.139
Count-to-infinity Problem
 In a stronger version of split horizon, called
split horizon with poison reverse

B actually sends that back route to A, but it puts
negative information in the route to ensure that A
will not eventually use B to get to E

For example, B sends the route (E, ∞) to A
CN_3.140
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Example Network
running RIP
RIPv2 Packet Format
CN_3.141
Link State Routing
Strategy: Send to all nodes (not just neighbors) information
about directly connected links (not entire routing table).
 Link State Packet (LSP)

id of the node that created the LSP

cost of link to each directly connected neighbor

sequence number (SEQNO)

time-to-live (TTL) for this packet
 Reliable Flooding

store most recent LSP from each node

forward LSP to all nodes but one that sent it

generate new LSP periodically; increment SEQNO

start SEQNO at 0 when reboot

decrement TTL of each stored LSP; discard when TTL=0
CN_3.142
Link State
Reliable Flooding
Flooding of link-state packets. (a) LSP arrives at node X; (b) X floods
LSP to A and C; (c) A and C flood LSP to B (but not X); (d) flooding is
complete
CN_3.143
Shortest Path Routing
 Dijkstra’s Algorithm - Assume non-negative link weights




N: set of nodes in the graph
l((i, j): the non-negative cost associated with the edge between
nodes i, j N and l(i, j) =  if no edge connects i and j
Let s N be the starting node which executes the algorithm to find
shortest paths to all other nodes in N
Two variables used by the algorithm
M: set of nodes incorporated so far by the algorithm
 C(n) : the cost of the path from s to each node n
 The algorithm
M = {s}
For each n in N – {s}
C(n) = l(s, n)
while ( N  M)
M = M  {w} such that C(w) is the minimum
for all w in (N-M)
For each n in (N-M)
C(n) = MIN (C(n), C(w) + l(w, n))

CN_3.144
Shortest Path Routing
 Each router computes its routing table directly from the
LSP’s it has collected using a realization of Dijkstra’s
algorithm called the forward search algorithm
 Specifically each router maintains two lists, known as
Tentative and Confirmed
 Each of these lists contains a set of entries of the form
(Destination, Cost, NextHop)
CN_3.145
Shortest Path Routing
 The algorithm

Initialize the Confirmed list with an entry for myself; this entry has a cost
of 0

For the node just added to the Confirmed list in the previous step, call it
node Next, select its LSP

For each neighbor (Neighbor) of Next, calculate the cost (Cost) to reach
this Neighbor as the sum of the cost from myself to Next and from Next to
Neighbor


If Neighbor is currently on neither the Confirmed nor the Tentative list, then
add (Neighbor, Cost, Nexthop) to the Tentative list, where Nexthop is the
direction I go to reach Next

If Neighbor is currently on the Tentative list, and the Cost is less than the
currently listed cost for the Neighbor, then replace the current entry with
(Neighbor, Cost, Nexthop) where Nexthop is the direction I go to reach Next
If the Tentative list is empty, stop. Otherwise, pick the entry from the
Tentative list with the lowest cost, move it to the Confirmed list, and
return to Step 2.
CN_3.146
Shortest Path Routing
CN_3.147
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
OSPF Header Format
OSPF Link State Advertisement
CN_3.148
Summary
 We have looked at some of the issues involved in building
scalable and heterogeneous networks by using switches
and routers to interconnect links and networks.
 To deal with heterogeneous networks, we have discussed
in details the service model of Internetworking Protocol
(IP) which forms the basis of today’s routers.
 We have discussed in details two major classes of routing
algorithms

Distance Vector

Link State
CN_3.149
End of Chapter 3