Transcript Networks

CS 105
“Tour of the Black Holes of Computing”
Internetworking
Topics


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
Client-server programming model
Networks
Internetworks
Global IP Internet
 IP addresses
 Domain names
 Connections
net1.ppt
A Client-Server Transaction
Every network application is based on the client-server model:
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A server process and one or more client processes
Server manages some resource.
Server provides service by manipulating resource for clients.
Clients and servers are processes running on hosts - can be same or
different hosts
Different hosts require interconnection, I.e., a network
1. Client sends request
Client
process
4. Client
handles
response
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Server
process
3. Server sends response
Resource
2. Server
handles
request
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Computer Networks
A network is a hierarchical system of boxes and wires
organized by geographical proximity

LAN (local area network) spans building or campus
 Ethernet is most prominent example
 802.11 (wireless) has become important

WAN (wide-area network) spans country or world
 Typically high-speed point-to-point copper or fiber lines
 Also microwave and satellite links in some situations
An internetwork (internet) is an interconnected set of
networks

Global IP Internet (uppercase “I”) is most famous example of
an internet (lowercase “i”)
Let’s look at how to build an internet from ground up
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Suppose You Want to Build A
Network
What available technologies would serve as
building blocks?
What software architecture would you use?
How would you incorporate the future?
What principles would you enforce?
Who would manage it?
Who would control it?
Computer Networks
Fundamental Requirement:
A Computer network must provide general, cost-effective, fair,
robust, secure, and high performance connectivity among a
large number of computers.
Internetworking
Abstraction that deals with complexity of multiple underlying
communication technologies
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Original LAN
A collection of hosts attached to a single common wire:
•
Ethernet now most known
•
Token Ring, X25 alternatives
host
host ...
host
Ethernet
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Lowest Level:
Ethernet Segment
Ethernet segment consists of a collection of hosts connected by wires
(twisted pairs) to a hub/switch - replaces a common ‘wire’ or
‘bus’
Spans room or floor in a building.
host
host
100 Mb/s
host
100 Mb/s
hub
Operation
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Physical
Ports/connections
Each Ethernet adapter has a unique 48-bit (MAC) address.
Hosts send bits to any other host in chunks called frames.
Hub slavishly copies each bit from each port to every other port.
 Every adapter sees every bit; chooses which frames to hand to the system.
 Hub replaces wire
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Hub Alternative: switch copies bits only to proper destination
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Next Level:
Bridged Network Segment
Spans building or campus.
Bridges/switches cleverly learn which hosts are reachable from
which ports and then selectively copy frames from port to port.
How? Frames have source and destination addresses
(board)….
A
host
B
host
host
host
X
bridge
hub
100 Mb/s
hub
100 Mb/s
1 Gb/s
hub
host
host
100 Mb/s
host
bridge
Y
100 Mb/s
host
host
host
hub
host
host
C
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Conceptual View of LANs
For simplicity, hubs, bridges, and wires are often shown as a
collection of hosts attached to a single wire:
host
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host ...
host
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Next Level: internets
Multiple incompatible LANs can be physically connected by
specialized computers called routers (gateway).
The connected networks are called an internet.
host
host ...
host
host
host ...
LAN 1
host
LAN 2
router
WAN
router
WAN
router
LAN 1 and LAN 2 might be completely different technologies,
totally incompatible LANs (e.g., Ethernet and ATM)
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Notion of an internet Protocol
How is it possible to send bits across incompatible
LANs and WANs?
Solution: protocol software running on each host and
router that smoothes out the differences between the
different networks.
Implements an internet protocol (i.e., set of rules) that
governs how hosts and routers should cooperate
when they transfer data from network to network.
•
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TCP/IP is the protocol (family) for the global IP Internet.
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What Does an internet Protocol
Do?
1. Provides a naming scheme
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An internet protocol defines a uniform format for host
addresses.
Each network node (host, switch, router) is assigned at least
one of these internet addresses that uniquely identifies it.
2. Provides a delivery mechanism
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An internet protocol defines a standard transfer unit
(datagram, frame, message, packet)
Packet consists of header and payload
 Header: contains info such as packet size, source and
destination addresses.
 Payload: contains data bits sent from source host.
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Encapsulation - key to network messages
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Transferring Data via an internet
(1)
Host A
Host B
client
server
data
protocol
software
internet packet
(2)
data
(3)
data
LAN1
adapter
PH FH1
(7)
data
PH
(6)
data
PH FH2
LAN2
adapter
LAN2
adapter
LAN2 frame
(4)
data
different
media
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Router
LAN1
adapter
LAN1
data
protocol
software
PH
Frame
(8)
PH FH1
data
LAN2
PH FH2 (5)
protocol
software
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Other Issues
We are glossing over a number of important questions:
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What if different networks have different maximum frame
sizes? (segmentation)
How do routers know where to forward frames?
How are routers informed when the network topology
changes?
What if packets get lost?
These (and other) questions are addressed by the area
of systems known as computer networking: CS 125.
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Global IP Internet
Most famous example of an internet.
Administered by a Unique Group - IETF
Based on the TCP/IP protocol family
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IP (Internet protocol) :
 Provides basic naming (addressing) scheme and unreliable, best effort
delivery capability of packets (datagrams) from host-to-host.
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UDP (Unreliable Datagram Protocol)
 Uses IP to provide unreliable datagram delivery from process-to-
process.
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TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
 Uses IP to provide reliable byte streams from process-to-process over
connections.
Accessed via a mix of Unix file I/O and functions from the sockets
interface.
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Hardware and Software Org of
an Internet Application
Internet client host
Internet server host
Client
User code
Server
TCP/IP
Kernel code
TCP/IP
Sockets interface
(system calls)
Hardware interface
(interrupts)
Network
adapter
Hardware
and firmware
Network
adapter
Global IP Internet
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Basic Internet Components
An Internet backbone is a collection of routers
(nationwide or worldwide) connected by highspeed point-to-point networks.
A Network Access Point (NAP) is a router that
connects multiple backbones (sometimes
referred to as peers).
Regional networks are smaller backbones that
cover smaller geographical areas (e.g., cities
or states)
A point of presence (POP) is a machine that is
connected to the Internet.
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) provide dial-up
or direct access to POPs.
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The Internet Circa 1993
In 1993, the Internet consisted of one backbone
(NSFNET) that connected 13 sites via 45 Mbs
T3 links.
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Merit (Univ of Mich), NCSA (Illinois), Cornell Theory
Center, Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center, San
Diego Supercomputing Center, John von Neumann
Center (Princeton), BARRNet (Palo Alto), MidNet
(Lincoln, NE), WestNet (Salt Lake City), NorthwestNet
(Seattle), SESQUINET (Rice), SURANET (Georgia
Tech).
Connecting to the Internet involved connecting
one of your routers to a router at a backbone
site, or to a regional network that was already
connected to the backbone.
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NSFNET Internet Backbone
source: www.eef.org
US Centric, only one backbone
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Enter Al Gore
Myth: Al Gore claimed to have invented the Internet
Fact: In a 1999 interview, Al Gore said, “During my
service in the United States Congress, I took the
initiative in creating the Internet”
Fact: Dave Farber, Vint Cerf, and Bob Metcalfe have all
supported the statement
Fact: Al Gore introduced and supported many bills
funding the shift from a primarily US research
network to a worldwide commercial one
Farber: “The guy used an inappropriate word. If he had
said he was instrumental in the development of what
it is now, he'd be accurate.”
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Current NAP-Based Internet Arch
In the early 90’s commercial outfits were building their
own high-speed backbones, connecting to NSFNET,
and selling access to their POPs to companies, ISPs,
and individuals.
In 1995, NSF decommissioned NSFNET, and fostered
creation of a collection of NAPs to connect the
commercial backbones.
Currently in the US there are about 50 commercial
backbones connected by ~12 NAPs (peering points).
NANOG
Similar architecture worldwide connects national
networks to the Internet.
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Abstracted Internet Hiearchy
Private
“peering”
agreements
between
two backbone
companies
often bypass
NAP
NAP
Backbone
POP
NAP
Backbone
POP
POP
NAP
Backbone
POP
Backbone
POP
POP
Colocation
sites
POP
T3
Regional net
POP
POP
T1
ISP (for individuals)
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ISP
POP
POP
Big Business
POP
T1
Claremont Collegs
POP
dialup
Pgh employee
POP
dialup
DC employee
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Network Access Points (NAPs)
Note: Peers in this context are
commercial backbones..droh
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Source: Boardwatch.com
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MCI/UUNET Global Backbone
Example of Nested Internet
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Source: Boardwatch.com
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A Programmer’s View of the Internet
1. Hosts are mapped to a set of 32-bit IP addresses.
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128.2.203.179
Class structure: A, B, C, Now Cider
Running out of IPv4 addresses, no more in general pool,
allocated to locate registeries
2. The set of IP addresses is mapped to a set of
identifiers called Internet domain names.
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128.2.203.179 is mapped to www.cs.cmu.edu
134.173.42.2 is mapped to www.cs.hmc.edu
3. A process on one Internet host can communicate
with a process on another Internet host over a
connection -- IP Address, Port Number
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CS 105
1. IP Addresses
32-bit IP addresses are stored in an IP address struct
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IP addresses are always stored in memory in network byte
order (big-endian byte order)
True in general for any integer transferred in a packet header
from one machine to another.
 E.g., the port number used to identify an Internet connection.
/* Internet address structure */
struct in_addr {
unsigned int s_addr; /* network byte order (big-endian) */
};
Handy network byte-order conversion functions (NoOps on some
machines) – x86 is little-endian
htonl: convert long int from host to network byte order.
htons: convert short int from host to network byte order.
ntohl: convert long int from network to host byte order.
ntohs: convert short int from network to host byte order.
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Dotted Decimal Notation
By convention, each byte in a 32-bit IP address is
represented by its decimal value and separated by a
period
 IPv4 address 0x8002C2F2 = 128.2.194.242
 IPv6 address 2001:1878:3010:9023:2186:8bff:fef9:a407
Functions for converting between binary IP addresses
and dotted decimal strings:
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inet_aton: converts a dotted decimal string to an IP
address in network byte order.
inet_ntoa: converts an IP address in network byte order to
its corresponding dotted decimal string.
“n” denotes network representation. “a” denotes application
representation.
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2. Internet Domain Names
unnamed root
mil
mit
cs
edu
hmc
gov
berkeley
math
TLD - Top Level Domains
First-level domain names
com
amazon
www
Second-level domain names
Third-level domain names
208.216.181.15
Wilkes
Turing
134.173.42.167 134.173.42.99
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Properties of DNS Host Entries
Each host entry is an equivalence class of domain names
and IP addresses.
Each host has a locally defined domain name localhost
which always maps to the loopback address
127.0.0.1
Different kinds of mappings are possible:
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Simple case: 1-1 mapping between domain name and IP addr:
 turing.cs.hmc.edu. maps to 134.173.42.99
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Multiple domain names mapped to the same IP address:
 cs.hmc.edu and www.cs.hmc.edu both map to 134.173.42.2
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Multiple domain names mapped to multiple IP addresses:
 aol.com and www.aol.com map to multiple IP addresses
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Some valid domain names don’t map to any IP address:
 for example: research.cs.hmc.edu
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Domain Naming System (DNS)
The Internet maintains a mapping between IP addresses
and domain names in a huge worldwide distributed
database called DNS.
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Conceptually, programmers can view the DNS database as a
collection of millions of host entry structures, OLD STRUCT
/* DNS host entry structure
struct hostent {
char
*h_name;
/*
char
**h_aliases;
/*
int
h_addrtype;
/*
int
h_length;
/*
char
**h_addr_list; /*
};
*/
official domain name of host */
null-terminated array of domain names */
host address type (AF_INET) */
length of an address, in bytes */
null-terminated array of in_addr structs */
Old Functions for retrieving host entries from DNS:
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gethostbyname: query key is a DNS domain name.
gethostbyaddr: query key is an IP address.
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man gethostbyname
struct hostent {
char
*h_name;
/* official name of host */
char
**h_aliases;
/* alias list */
int
h_addrtype;
int
h_length;
char
/* host address type */
/* length of address */
**h_addr_list; /* list of addresses from name server */
};
#define h_addr h_addr_list[0] /* address, for backward compatibility */
The members of this structure are:
h_name
Official name of the host.
h_aliases
A NULL-terminated array of alternate names for the host.
h_addrtype The type of address being returned; usually AF_INET.
h_length
The length, in bytes, of the address.
h_addr_list A NULL-terminated array of network addresses for the host.
Host addresses are returned in network byte order.
h_addr
The first address in h_addr_list; this is for backward compatibility.
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Domain Naming System (DNS)
Internet tracks mapping between IP addresses and domain
names in huge worldwide distributed database called
DNS.
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Conceptually, programmers can view DNS database as collection
of millions of address information structures NEW STRUCT
/* Address information structure (DNS only
struct addrinfo {
int
ai_flags;
int
ai_family;
int
ai_socktype;
int
ai_protocol;
size_t
ai_addrlen;
struct sockaddr *ai_addr;
char
*ai_canonname;
struct addrinfo *ai_next;
};
has + entries) */
/*
Various options */
/* + AF_INET or AF_INET6 */
/*
Preferred socket type */
/*
Preferred protocol */
/*
Length of address */
/* + Encoded IP address */
/* + Canonical host name */
/*
Link to next answer */
New Functions for retrieving host entries from DNS:
getaddrinfo: query key is DNS domain name
– 33– getnameinfo: query key is IP address (V4 or V6)
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CS 105
man getaddrinfo
This structure can be used to provide hints concerning the type of socket that the caller supports or wishes to
use. The caller can supply the following structure elements in hints:
ai_family
The protocol family that should be used. When ai_family
is set to PF_UNSPEC, it means the caller will accept any
protocol family supported by the operating system.
ai_socktype
Denotes the type of socket that is wanted: SOCK_STREAM,
SOCK_DGRAM, or SOCK_RAW. When ai_socktype is zero the
caller will accept any socket type.
ai_protocol
Indicates which transport protocol is desired,
IPPROTO_UDP or IPPROTO_TCP. If ai_protocol is zero the
caller will accept any protocol.
ai_flags
The ai_flags field to which the hints parameter points
shall be set to zero or be the bitwise-inclusive OR of
one or more of the values AI_ADDRCONFIG, AI_ALL,
AI_CANONNAME, AI_NUMERICHOST, AI_NUMERICSERV, AI_PASSIVE,
and AI_V4MAPPED.
AI_ADDRCONFIG If the AI_ADDRCONFIG bit is set, IPv4
addresses shall be returned only if an
….
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A Program That Queries DNS - NEW
int main(int argc, char **argv) { /* argv[1] is a domain name */
struct addrinfo hints, *host, *firsthost = NULL;
struct sockaddr_in *addr;
char buf[80];
memset(&hints, 0, sizeof hints);
hints.ai_flags = AI_CANONNAME;
hints.ai_family = AF_UNSPEC; /* Or AF_INET or AF_INET6 */
if (getaddrinfo(argv[1], NULL, &hints, &firsthost) != 0)
exit(1);
printf("official hostname: %s\n", firsthost->ai_canonname);
for (host = firsthost; host != NULL; host = host->ai_next) {
addr = (struct sockaddr_in *)host->ai_addr;
printf("address: %s\n", inet_ntop(addr->sin_family,
&addr->sin_addr, buf, sizeof buf));
}
exit(0);
}
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CS 105
Querying DNS from the
Command Line
Domain Information Groper (dig) provides a scriptable
command line interface to DNS.
linux> dig +short kittyhawk.cmcl.cs.cmu.edu
128.2.194.242
linux> dig +short -x 128.2.194.242
KITTYHAWK.CMCL.CS.CMU.EDU.
linux> dig +short aol.com
205.188.145.215
205.188.160.121
64.12.149.24
64.12.187.25
linux> dig +short -x 64.12.187.25
aol-v5.websys.aol.com.
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3. Internet Connections
Clients and servers communicate by sending streams
of bytes over connections:

Point-to-point, full-duplex (2-way communication), and
reliable.
A socket is an endpoint of a connection

Socket address is an:: IPaddress/port pair
A port is a 16-bit integer that identifies a process:


Ephemeral port: Assigned automatically on client when
client makes a connection request
Well-known port: Associated with some service provided by
a server (e.g., port 80 is associated with Web servers)
A connection is uniquely identified by the socket
addresses of its endpoints (socket pair)
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(cliaddr:cliport, servaddr:servport)
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Putting it all Together:
Anatomy of an Internet Connection
Client socket address
128.2.194.242:51213
Client
Client host address
128.2.194.242
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Server socket address
208.216.181.15:80
Connection socket pair
(128.2.194.242:51213, 208.216.181.15:80)
Server
(port 80)
Server host address
208.216.181.15
CS 105
Next Time
How to use the sockets interface to establish Internet
connections between clients and servers
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A Program That Queries DNS - OLD
int main(int argc, char **argv) { /* argv[1] is a domain name
char **pp;
* or dotted decimal IP addr */
struct in_addr addr;
struct hostent *hostp;
if (inet_aton(argv[1], &addr) != 0 // got address
hostp = Gethostbyaddr((const char *)&addr, sizeof(addr),
AF_INET);
else
hostp = Gethostbyname(argv[1]); // got name
printf("official hostname: %s\n", hostp->h_name);
for (pp = hostp->h_aliases; *pp != NULL; pp++)
printf("alias: %s\n", *pp);
for (pp = hostp->h_addr_list; *pp != NULL; pp++) {
addr.s_addr = *((unsigned int *)*pp);
printf("address: %s\n", inet_ntoa(addr));
}
}
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