Transcript Classical Civilizations in the Mediterranean and Middle East

Classical Civilizations in the Mediterranean
and Middle East
Chapter 4
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The Persian Empire: A New Perspective in the Middle East
Patterns of Greek and Roman History
Greek and Roman Political Institutions
Religion and Culture
Economy and Society in the Mediterranean
Toward the Fall of Rome
The Rise of The Persian Empire
• Before the Persians came,
there were the empires of
the Assyrians (known for
their ruthlessness) and
the Chaldeans (known for
King Nebuchadnezzar II)
• The Chaldeans of
Babylonia fell to Persia in
539 B.C.E.
The Persian Empire: A New Perspective in the
Middle East
• In 550 B.C., Cyrus the Great of Persia took over Medea,
making this the first Persian satrapy.
• 546 conquer Lydia
• 539 conquer Babylon
• 525 conquer Egypt (under his son, Cambyses)
• Why was he Great?
• Set the Jews free from Babylonian captivity
• Wise and compassionate
• Used locals as government officials
• He used Assyrian, Babylonian, Egyptian and Lydian
practices
Persian Empire
• Persian kings were said to be elected
by the Persian god, Ahuramazda. They
seldom were accessible to the public
and lived in splendid palaces.
• The army was truly international, the
elite infantry was known as the
Immortals.
Persian Empire
• Best organizer among Persian kings = Darius I
(521-486) Divided empire into 23 provinces
• Each province ruled by a satrap = governor
• Satraps collected tributes, administered
justice, raised taxes for the army and led the
army in their provinces
• Moved the capital from Susa to Persepolis
• Ruled more than 35 million people
• Empire stretched more than 3000 miles – from
Nile to Indus River
The Persian Empire in Its Main Stages
The Persians
• Persians = very tolerant rulers
• Allowed conquered people to keep own languages, religions, and
laws
• Zoroastrianism popular religion and endorsed by emperors
• Monotheistic religion
• Artisans built city of Persepolis = most magnificent city in the empire
• Cities had underground canal systems built called qanat
• Slaves used in countryside and outside of cities- prisoners of war
and debtors
• Big network of roads
• Allowed for trade between different peoples/cultures in the
empire
• Allowed for easy movement of soldiers
• Royal Road = longest road in the empire  had stations along it so
travelers could get food, water, and fresh horses
Zoroastrianism
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Zoroaster ( c. 630-550 B.C.E.)
Individual salvation
Monotheism
Magi, priests
Great influence
The Greco-Persian Wars
Rebellions in Ionia (Greeks living in Persian Empire)
Darius sent troops, Athens went to aid Greeks (492490 BCE)
◦ Darius sent troops to punish mainland Greeks but were
defeated at Battle of Marathon.
◦ Xerxes succeeded Darius and a second series of battles
results in defeat for Persia; battle of Thermopylae and
Battle of Salamis. (480-479 BCE)
Persian Wars significance:
◦ Sparked decline of Persia
◦ Boost to Athens and development of Delian League
◦ Athens and Sparta involved in Peloponnesian Wars which
weakened all city-states and leaving them vulnerable to the
Macedonians.
Later Persian Empire
• Dominated Middle East
• Conquests into Africa and Indian subcontinent
• Conquered by Alexander the Great
The Hellenistic Period
• Philip II of Macedon
• Defeats Greeks, 338 B.C.E
• Alexander the Great
• Extends empire
• Period of merging of cultures
Patterns of Greek and Roman History
Stages in Greek Development
• City-States, 800-600 B.C.E.
 Common culture
 Some periods of unity, cooperation
• Domination of Sparta and Athens, 500-449 B.C.E.
 High point of Greek culture
• Fifth Century B.C.E.
 Pericles, dominates Athenian politics
 Peloponnesian Wars (431-404 B.C.E.)
Greece and Greek Colonies, c. 431 B.C.E.
Rise of Macedonia
• Philip II became King of Macedonia in 359 BCE
• Determined to do 3 things:
) Create a strong army – used Greek-style phalanxes
2) Unify the Greeks under Macedonian rule
3) Destroy the Persian Empire
• Greek city-states wouldn’t cooperate with one another
to fight off the Macedonians
• By 338 BCE = Philip II had conquered all of Greece
except Sparta
• Philip dies in 336 BCE and his son Alexander becomes
king.
Alexander’s Conquest [336-323 BCE]
• Only 20 when he took over the
empire
• Highly respected for his courage
and military skill
• Tutored by Aristotle
• Conquered Persian territories –
including Egypt and Mesopotamia
The Hellenistic Synthesis
Alexander forced intermarriage between his men
and Asian women to forge a new, blended
civilization.
Named many cities Alexandria.
Died at 33; empire fell apart but left huge cultural
impact.
◦ Spread Greek culture
◦ Empire divided into three large states and many
Greeks left their homelands to settle, bringing Greek
culture and creating cosmopolitan centers
⚫ Religion
⚫ Fashion
⚫ Customs
⚫ Language
⚫ Values
Divided Domain
• 3 of Alexander’s general
divided his empire into
separate domains =
territories
1) Ptolemy ruled Egypt, Libya,
and party of Syria
2) Seleucus ruled the rest of
Syria, Mesopotamia, Iran, and
Afghanistan
3) Antigonus ruled Macedonia
and Greece
- Would eventually be
conquered by the Romans
Rome
• Roman Republic from 509 B.C.E.
• Military emphasis
• Punic Wars, against Carthage (264-146 B.C.E.)
• Empire
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Julius Caesar victory over rivals, 45 B.C.E.
Augustus Caesar, rules from 27 B.C.E.
Empire strong to about 180 C.E.
Renewed vigor under Diocletian, Constantine
• Geography
• influenced by many different groups: most important Greeks, Latins, Etruscans
• In 509 B.C.E., the city of Rome gained its
independence from Etrucan kings (monarchy), and
established itself as a republic, a state without a
monarch
• For a period of time, the republic flourished before
entering a period of decline when it became
necessary for a series of dictators to take power
• The republic lasted until the rule of the first emperor
Augustus (31 B.C.E. - 14. C.E.)
• Became an empire with Augustus' rule;
• fell in 476 C.E. (although the eastern part of the empire
existed until 1453 when the Ottoman Empire takes over)
REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENT
• Not a democracy, but not a monarchy either
• Senate - most important ruling body; composed of Patricians (aristocrats
who passed their positions down to their sons) - 10 percent of the
population; controlled almost all political decisions.
• General Assembly - elected body representing the Plebeians
(commoners) had very little power, although this system seems
democratic.
• Executive branch - two consuls, elected for 1 year terms from the Senate;
each consul had veto power over the other; were usually military generals.
The plebeians protested their lack of power, and fought several civil wars,
resulting in a change.
• Praetors – judges – Twelve
Tables
• Tribunes - representatives in the
Senate
• The power of the Senate was
challenged by Julius Caesar; a
triumvirate was formed of Caesar,
Crassus, and Pompey. Caesar
eventually declared himself
dictator, and was assassinated by
senators on March 15, 44 B.C.E.
• The power of the Senate was challenged by Julius
Caesar
• A triumvirate was formed of Caesar, Crassus, and
Pompey.
• Caesar eventually declared himself dictator, and
assassinated by senators on March 15, 44 B.C.E.
• Caesar's nephew Octavian battled Mark Antony for
control of Rome; defeated him at the Battle of
Actium in 31 B.C.E.
• The Senate declared him Augustus ("revered
one"), establishing the Roman Empire
How was the imperial government under
Augustus different from Republican Rome?
• Did not change the old political structures
• Retained the title of "consul" - but in effect became consul for life
• The Senate remained intact; for the remainder of the empire, the Senate named
the new emperor; in reality had little power
• Augustus was a clever politician - always catered to the Senate, preferring to be
called princips (first citizen)
• Established a new civil service - managed the empire with considerable efficiency
and honesty (officials were called equites - Italian merchants and landowners
• Appointed governors to run the provinces; allowed freedom to run local affairs
• Codified Roman law, adding onto the code from the republic (Twelve Tables)
• Set up a network of officials to hear cases and administer the law; idea of
legal "precedent" established
Augustus' reforms of the military
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Reduced size; only made up of professional soldiers
Army became an engineering force (to build roads and public works)
28 legions, each with about 6000 infantrymen supported by cavalry
Navy re-organized to fight piracy in Mediterranean (to protect trade)
One problem not solved by Augustus or succeeding emperors - uncertainty
concerning naming the emperor's successor - heredity not always key
These reforms led to the "Pax Romana" - lasted until the late 2nd century C.E.
Empire reached its largest extent
Long period of peace and prosperity
Roman strength generally unchallenged
After the Pax Romana ended (with reign of Marcus Aurelius)
Key Leaders
• Claudius – 41-54 CE – changed alphabet, introduced aqueducts
• Nero 54-68 CE – known for being ruthless, numerous revolts, Great Fire of
64
• Titus – 69-81 – Built Colesseum, Pompeii eruption,
• Nerva – 96-98 – “Good Emperors”; adoption of successor
• Trajan – 98-117 – Spanish born; greatest size, Romanization, Pantheon
• Hadrian – 117-138 – continue Pantheon and infrastructure; Hadrian’s Wall
• Marcus Aurelius – great writer
• Diocletian – empire in decline; price limits; tried “Tetrarchy”
• Constantine – 324-337 - Council of Nicaea; converted to Christianity
Economic Development and Social Distinctions
• Like Greece, land controlled by aristocrats, worked
by tenant farmers (latifundia)
• Independent farmers could serve in the military
• Elite - patricians; commoners - plebeians
• Multi-generational family; domestic slaves
• Paterfamilias - oldest living male had complete
authority over his family; was tied to other family
heads through patron-client relationships
• A senator had many clients who depended on his
political power, and in return they gave him military
service, labor and political support
• The Forum was the center of business for these
networks, which were in reality a web in inequalities
• Social tensions existed between the classes as long
as the Republic lasted
Women's Status
• Women in upper classes were generally treated like children - under
the control of her father, then her husband, and finally her son.
• More freedom than women in ancient Greece; could supervise
family businesses and the financial affairs of wealthy estates; many
were educated and outspoken.
Greek and Roman Political Institutions
Greece – The Polis
• Athens - direct democracy – the assembly
• Lottery for positions
• Citizen body a minority of the population
• Most city states were oligarchies
• Aristocratic assemblies
• Sparta
Religion and Culture
Philosophy
• Provided a system of ethical behavior
• Aristotle, Cicero
• Stressed balance
• Stoics stress inner life
Religion and Culture
Science and Philosophy
• Socrates – encouraged questioning
• Speculation on the physical world
• Theories about the universe, the nature of matter
• Mathematics, especially geometry
• Hellenistic period
• More empirical work in physics
• Euclid, Galen
Hellenistic Culture
• Greek language and culture spread in the lands Alexander
had conquered
• Greek (Hellenic) ways of life mixed with Persian culture of
Middle East to form a new culture = Hellenistic
• Hellenistic culture was concentrated in cities
• Largest and wealthiest city was Alexandria in Egypt
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Had a double harbor with a lighthouse
First ever museum
Large library
Scientific research institute
Zoo and botanical garden
It was here that Jewish scholars translated the Bible into Greek
Hellenistic Culture
• Social status of upper-class Greek women improved
• Could move about freely, learn how to read and write, have
certain jobs
• Commoners’ status didn’t improve
• Philosophy 3 systems of thought:
1) Cynicism = live simply and avoid materialism
2) Epicureanism = accept the world as it is, avoid
politics, and live simply
3) Stoicism = ignore emotions and follow reason
Hellenistic Art & Literature
• Art often showed people in the grip of emotions
• Wrote comedies about everyday life
Science, Medicine, and Math
• Performed experiments and
developed new theories
• Eratosthenes estimated the
circumference of the Earth within 1%
• Dissected corpses to learn about
human anatomy
• Learned how to use drugs to relieve
pain
Science, Medicine, and Math
• Euclid organized a book about geometry
• Archimedes invented the compound pulley
(used for lifting heavy objects) and the
cylinder screw (for irrigation)
Religion and Culture
The Arts
• Drama: comedy and tragedy
• Balance between virtue and emotions
• Sophocles Oedipus the King
• Epics, the Iliad, Odyssey
• Architecture
• Roman engineering
Roman Culture
• Borrowed heavily from the Greeks in philosophy, science, and the arts
• Independent achievements: Law
• 1) the concept of precedent, or court decisions that help to determine how
courts rule in subsequent cases
• 2)equity among citizens should be the goal of the legal system
• 3)interpretation of the law, or the responsibility of judges to decide what a law
means and how it should be applied
• 4)Natural law, the belief that all human beings have basic rights in nature that
cannot be abridged
• Engineering - aqueducts, roads (anything with a practical purpose)
• Literature - Aeneid, poetry (Ovid), Livy, history - Tacitus; oratory skills
• Philosophy- Stoicism
Economy and Society in the Mediterranean
Agriculture and Trade
• Constant trend to market farming
• Led to trade
• Grain from Egypt
• Merchants
• Officially, legally respected
• Not socially esteemed
Economy and Society in the Mediterranean
Slavery
• From conquest
• Becomes a motive for expansion
• Technological innovation in farming lacking
• Unfavorable trade balance with eastern Asia
Economy and Society in the
Mediterranean
Family
• Patriarchal
• Women have economic role
• Some women active in commerce
• Women could own property
A Complex Legacy
What Survived?
• Enduring ideas
• No polities
• Direct and indirect
• Consciously imitated, revived
• Mingled with Middle Eastern legacy
Global Connections: Persia, Greece, Rome,
and the World
• Persia
• Maintained contact between East and West
• Greece
• Traders, expansionist
• Alexander the Great
• New contacts between Mediterranean, Persia, India
• Rome
• Variety of contacts