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EMPIRES: ROME AND HAN CHINA 753 B.C.E. – 330 C.E. Rome’s Creation of a Mediterranean Empire 753 B.C.E-330 C.E. Geography Rome’s central location contributed to success in unifying Italy and lands around Mediterranean sea Italian peninsula and island of Sicily make a natural bridge almost linking Europe and North Africa Italy a crossroads in the med. Rome a crossroads within Italy Tiber River and doble ring of seven hills give natural protection Many hills and mountains Passes through the Apennines and Alps allowed merchants and armies tot travel overland Well forested, providing timber Many navigable rivers Region of Etruria in NW rich in iron and other metals\ Ample arable land in coastal plains and river valleys Extremely fertile volcanic soil Sustained larger pop than possible in Greece Mild Mediterranean climate Long growing season and conditions that contributed to wide crop variety Founding of Rome Legend of Romulus Merging of many hilltop communities, forming urban nucleus shortly before 600 B.C.E Drained swamp on site of the future Roman Forum Agriculture essential economic activity Founded Rome in 753 Raised by she-wolf Land basis of wealth Social status, pol. privilege, and fundamental values related to landownership Senatorial calss Small # of families that own large plots of land Heads of wealthy families were members of the Senate Major pol. Role in Roman state Before the Republic 753-507 B.C.E seven kings of Rome First was Romulus; Last the tyrannical Tarquinius Superbus In 507 members of senatorial class led by Brutus “the Liberator” got rid of Tarquinius Superbus ( they didn’t think he was all that Superbus) Establish a res publica The Roman Republic 507-31 B.C.E and the Senate Sovereign power resided mostly in male, wealthy class Slate of civic officals elected annually Two consuls Hierarchy of state officials evolved Presided over meetings of Senate and asseblies Commanded army on military campaigns The Roman Senate Technically an advisory counsil Made policy and governed Senators nominated sons for offices and villed vacanies in senate from ranks of former officials Members served for life Family and Society Basic unit of roman society Contained many generations and domestic slaves Paterfamilias Head of family is oldest living male (absolute power) Hierarchical Invested with auctoritas: the ability to inspire and demand obedience from inferiors Used inequality for mutual benefits and obligations Patron/client relationship Patron: man of wealth, Client: man who looked to patron for protection and help A senator could be patron to dozens or hundreds Patron provided clients with legal advice, representation, physical protection, and loans Client expected to support in battle, political arena, help in land, and contribute to daughter’s dowry Women Played no public role Never stopped being a child in eyes of law Could not own property or represent self in legal matters Under authority of paterfamilias First of her family, hten her husbands However, less constrained then women in greek world Came to gain more personal protection and some economic reedom New type of marriage: left woman under juristiction of father and free after his death Strong women influenced husbands or sons to help shape roman history Tales of self-assured and assertive queen-moters and consorts Religion and Pax Deorum Forces known as Numina Vesta, Janus, Penates examples of smaller gods; Jupiter, and mars examples of greater gods Deities in hills, caves, grottoes, and springs Came into contact with Greeks of southern Italy and took over/adopted myths and gods Offerings of cakes and liquids to win favor of spirits Pax Deorum: peace of the gods Covenant betweeen gods and Roman state Priests performed sacrifices and rituals to win favor Gods in turn would bring success to Roman state EXPANSION IN ITALY AND THE MRome EDITERRANEAN: was at the center of a huge empire consisting of most of the areas surrounding the Mediterranean and reached its peak in the 2nd and 3rd centuries B.C.E. Romans seized any opportunity they came across to expand their boundaries. Continuous tension between the pastoral hill tribes of the Apennines and the coastal plains agriculturists sparked Rome’s conquest of Italy. Rome gained power by helping to protect the wealthy cities of Campania from the hill tribes and had extended their “protection” over most of the peninsula by 290 B.C.E. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans gained the favor of conquered areas by extending political, legal, and economic privileges of Roman citizenship to them. Rome’s sheer numbers were able to survive greater casualties which aided its military conquests. From 262 to 202 B.C.E., Rome fought and conquered the Carthaginians then gained Sicily, Sardania, and Spain as its first overseas provinces. From 200 to 246 B.C.E., Rome fought and conquered the major Hellenistic kingdoms in the eastern Mediterranean. The conquest of Gual’s Celtic people was Rome’s first expansion into areas outside the Mediterranean. Rome dispatched a member of The Senate every year to its provinces to function as governor. This system eventually collapsed due to the general inadequacy of the governors to govern. THE FAILURE OF THE REPUBLIC: Rome’s great size caused the eventual downfall of the Republican system of government. Changes in Italy were caused by the long amounts of time that peasant farmers were required to serve in the military and the fact that those in the lower classes saw little of the wealth that came from new conquests. This resulted in peasant farms being replaced by latifundia, broad estates or ranches. These latifundia owners replaced the growing of wheat (the staple food of Italy) with the grazing of cattle and the growing of more profitable crops, like grapes. Peasants who had lost their farms to the latifundia were forced into extreme poverty. The Senate’s loss of authority was partially caused by a change in the composition of the Roman army. The problem of the shortage in land-owning peasants to serve in the military was solved by Gaius Marius, who decided to accept men who did not own property into the army. These men were promised farms once they completed their duties. Various ambitious generals with loyal armies fought for control of Rome. Octavian, or Augustus, won, replaced the Roman Republic with the Roman Principate, and conquered Egypt and parts of the Middle East and Central Europe. Theoretically, emperors were chosen by the Senate, but they were actually chosen by the army. Beginning in the 2nd century C.E., emperors selected a grown man as the next leader and raised him as his son. The equites were Italian merchants and landowners, just under the senatorial class. They became a key element in running Rome and did it with honesty, consistency, and efficiency. An Urban Empire 80% of pop living in the borders of the empire performed agriculture Empire was administered through towns and cities and greatest benefits were to the urban populace The number of people living in urban centers varied Largest cities had huge strains on the limited technological capabilities of the ancients Providing enough food and water, as well as removing sewage was problematic Upper class lived in town-houses on the seven hills Centered around atrium: courtyard Frescoes on walls (paintings on wet plaster) Lower class lived in crowded slums Wooden tenements subject to frequent fires Much of their time spent outdoors Cities towns and settlements on edge of frontier forts mimicked the capital in political organization, layout, and appearance Town counsel land two annually elected officials from wealthy families of community kept law and order, and collected taxes. This municipal aristocracy served interests of Rome Situation of urban poor superior to that of rural poor Urban Empire Cont. Countryside life same as always had been Process by which ownership of land become more concentrated in fewer hands was restored in era of emperors Wealth concentrated in cities but based on agriculture Manufacture and trade prospered and enhanced by pax romana Landowners needed to find new source of labor Independent farmers decreased- replaced by “tenant farmers” Landowners hired foremen to manage farms Was temporarily reversed during civil wars that brought end to Roman Republic After era of conquest ended in early 2nd cent. C.E., slaves no longer cheap and plentiful Most of time, rural communities had to fend for themselves against bandits, wild animals, etc. People away from urban centers had little direct contact with roman gov. Safety and stability guaranteed by roman might Foodstuff had to be exchanged only locally City dependent on import of grain from Sicily and Egypt Centers of trade moved from Italy outward Romanization The spread of the Latin language and roman way of life Evolution of Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian and Romanian from Latin Language of conquerors taken over by common people as well Switch to Latin and adoption of cultural havits chosen by the inhabitance of the conquered people Benefits from adopting roman culture Towns sprang up and acquired features of Roman urban life Magnets for ambitious members of indigenous people Citizenship extended to people living outside of Italy Facilitated dealings with roman administration Merchants who spoke Latin could get contracts to supply military and could be understood all over Aura of success around the language and culture At first men who completed 26 term sevice in military units Granted for good service 212 Caracalla granted citizenship to all free, adult, male people in empire Even emperors eventually hailed from Spain, Gaul and North Africa Rise of Christianity Judea put under direct roman rule in 6 C.E. Among Jews, opposition to Roman rule sprang up Jesus, a young carpenter from northern Israel was offended by Jewish leaders’ concern with money and power Had most success converting non-Jews In 66 C.E. revolt in Roman Judea that lasted till 73 Christianity diverged more from Jewish roots Early Christians vulnerable to persecution by roman officials because they refused to worship the emperor as a sign of disloyalty Attracted attention of Jewish authorities in Jerusalem by his prescribed return to personal faith and spirituality Imprisoned, and executed by crucifixion Followers continued spreading his teachings among Jews Paul, a Jew from tarsus in southeast Anatolia converted and spread the word Many waited for the Messiah who would liberate them from Romans However movement continued to gain strength and attract converts General religious tendency of the age TECHNOLOGY AND TRANSFORMATION: The Romans’ engineering expertise included the building of roads, fortification walls, aqueducts, bridges, siege works and ballistic weapons. Aqueducts are long conduits that carried water using gravity. They are either elevated or underground. The Romans used arches and concrete in their architecture of vaulted and domed interior spaces. Rome’s vast lands made it difficult to defend. Augustus even recommended that the next leaders not expand the boundaries further, so the Roman army switched from offense to defense. Parthia was Rome’s one neighbor that could actually be considered a threat. The Roman state prospered for two and a half centuries, up until the third-century crisis (235 to 284 C.E.). This crisis consisted of political, military, and economic problems and many short-lasting rulers that nearly destroyed Rome. Germanic tribes attacked during this period, so many Roman cities began building protective walls. Economic issues were plentiful and were caused by political and military emergencies and greedy rulers that took extra for themselves. This resulted in a return to a barter economy, which then caused decreased trade, which then caused the disappearance of the aristocracy. Most people moved from the cities to the country during this time period. Diocletian rose to power and caused the restoration of Rome. During his twenty year reign, he created government regulation of prices and vocations, which caused the creation of the black market. It also caused a growing lack of loyalty to the government. Constantine succeeded Diocletian and united the entire empire under his rule. He converted to Christianity after a successful battle and supported the Christian church, but was tolerant of other religions. His conversion caused the conversion of many Romans seeking the government’s favor. Constantine also moved the capitol from Rome to Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. Most people consider Constantine’s rule the end of Roman history because of the fundamental changes in Rome he caused. The origins of Imperial China 221 B.C.E. 220C.E. Resources and Population Great diversity in topography, climate, plant and animal life, and human population Agricultural production was primary source of wealth and taxes Main tax: % of annual yield of the fields, used to support gov, and officials Large pop in capitals: (first Chang’an and later Luoyang) Intensive ag, spread in the Yangzi River Valley, Human labor also a fundamental commodity Census carried out periodically Vast majority of pop lived in eastern portion of the country Transporting S crops to north became important First steps to create canals River valley regions that could support dense populations At first largest concentration was in Yellow River Valley and In North China Plain, But began to shift to the Yangzi Rigver valley by early Han times Governments took advantage of expanding population Able-bodied men expected to give one month of labor a year Two mandatory years of military service Han Chinese gradually expanded at the expense of other ethnic groups tended to move into regions suitable for the kind of ag they were used to In places not suitable for their preferred ag, (steppe and desert) not able to displace other groups Pop growth in core regions and land shortage motivated the push into new areas Gov would sometimes organized opening of new areas Kingdoms also invited Chinese settlers to exploit their skills and learn their technologies Hierarchy, Obedience, and Belief Social organization, values, language, and other elements of culture was spread into new regions as Han Chinese expanded Basic unit of society was the family Included all living generations as well as the ancestors Viewed as a living, self-renewing organism, Fundamental source of values was doctrine of Confucius Head of family=father Domestic hierarchy parallels social hierarchy as a whole Basic values of Chinese society: loyalty, obedience to authority, respect for elders and ancestors, honor, and appropriate conduct Women Confucianism stressed impropriety of women participating in public life “woman’s duties are to cook the five grains, heat the wine, look after her parents in law, make clothes, and that is all!” Arranged marriages Worship of nature State erected and maintained shines to lords of rain and winds Feng shui : earth divination Sons were necessary to “ensure immortality” Consulted to determine best location and orientation for buildings and graves Graves filled with useful things for the afterlife THE FIRST CHINESE EMPIRE: The hostility of the divided eastern China was referred to as the Warring States Period (480 to 221 B.C.E.). Qin overcame all the warring states and created a unified China. Shi Huangdi (literally “First Emperor”) was the first Qin ruler and Li Si was his advisor and prime minister. They were able and ruthless and created a government with superior organizational skills and a totalitarian structure. They also replaced Confucianism with Legalism, to justify their actions. The Qin government abolished primogeniture and slavery to promote standardization, which resulted in a unified Chinese civilization. The Qin imposed standard weights, measures, and coinage, a uniform law code, and a common system of writing. The Qin caused the building of canals, barricades, and thousands of miles of roads. Subjects were forced into giving their time, and often their lives, to the building of these projects. After Shi Huangdi’s death, the subjects rebelled and destroyed the Qin dynasty. THE LONG REIGN OF THE HAN: Liu Bang established the Han dynasty. The Han left much of the Legalist structures of government, but added elements of Confucianism. Han military expansion into Fujian, Guangdong, Vietnam, Manchuria, North Korea, Mongolia, and Xinjiang was carried out under Emperor Wu in the later 2nd century. Chang’an in the Wei Valley was the capital of Early Han and became the model of urban planning. The more centrally located Luoyang was the capital of Later Han. There was a high contrast in the lives of the wealthy living in the capital to those of the poor living in the capital. The Emperor was considered the “Son of Heaven” and was chosen by the Mandate of Heaven. The emperor was thought of as a divinity on earth, but was kicked out if natural disasters or successful revolutions occurred, as these were considered proof that Heaven had withdrawn its support of the emperor. A prime minister and a civil service director ran the central government along with nine other ministers. The Han government used local officials to carry out all day-to-day business in the empire. These officials were taken from the gentry class, which was just below the aristocrats in terms of wealth. The gentry class adopted a form of Confucianism and eventually became a sort of new aristocracy. An imperial university was located outside of Chang’an and graduated students entered various levels of government service. Many common people in the Han period adopted Daoism, a clear opposite of the upper class’ ritualistic Confucianism. Technology and Trade Advent of bronze tools around 1500 B.C.E gave powerful push in effort to clear forests of the North China Plain and open more land fro ag. 1000 yrs later iron arrives Qin took full advantage Mastered technique of liquefying iron and pouring into molds Use of crossbow and cavalry helped military beat the attacks of nomads from the steppe regions Watermill used long before it appeared in Europe Han rulers continues Qin project of road building Construction of canals Improved and connected network of navigable rivers Development of a horse collar that did not choke the horses Resulted in harder, more durable weapons and tools Could pull heavier loads Development of long-distance commerce Silk most important export ever Silk value could increase a hundredfold by time it reached destination Gov. tried to control silk road and its profits by launching campaigns into central Asia The Decline of the Han Empire Pressure of non-Chinese peoples raiding from across the frontier or moving into prosperous lands of the empire eventually led to the decline of Han authority. The differences between the farmers in Han lands and the herders in nearby nomadic tribes gave rise to suspicions and stereotyping Military broke down Major external threat in Han period came from the Xiongnu (Turkic peoples) Chinese developed cavalry forces equal to the nomads Developed a tributary system in which nomad rulers accepted Chinese supremacy In the end, this worsened economic troubles of later Han times Foreign soldiers not loyal to Han state Factional intrigues within ruling clan. Official corruption and inefficiency, uprisings of peasants, spread of banditry, unsuccessful reform movements, attacks by nomads, and ambitions of rural warlords, all contributed to the weakening of Han control After 220 C.E. China entered a period of political fragmentation IMPERIAL PARALLELS: SIMILARITIES One similarity between the Roman and Han empires is the patriarchal nature of families. These families also valued honor, respect, obedience, and had a strong sense of duty. Each empire relied heavily on agriculture as its source of wealth and peasants as its source of military labor. The first leaders of both empires first came to power by overcoming the aristocratic families and giving land back to small farmers. Each empire began as a small, ethnically homogenous area, then spread to create a large, diverse land filled with various peoples and cultures. Each empire then created cultural unity. Due to their widespread lands, the Roman and Han empires had to rely heavily on local officials to carry out local transactions and business. Cities in both empires were modeled after their capitals, Rome and Chang’an. However, most people lived in the countryside. Both empires had difficulty defending their vast borders from jealous neighbors and built many defensive walls. The cost of these fortifications damaged the economy, which resulted in decreased loyalty from their subjects. Rome and Han China’s central governments finally collapsed when their borders were breached. IMPERIAL PARALLELS: DIFFERENCES While the imperial model of Han China was reestablished in later eras, the Roman Empire was never as unified again. The Chinese individual was considered only a small part of a much larger social group and had a deep respect for his ancestors. Legalism and Confucianism also played a key role in the interactions and relationships of Han China. Unlike China, the Roman’s organization of society was not modeled after the family unit and focused much less on respect for ancestors. In the Roman empire, individuals had more opportunity to rise in wealth and status, and the individual was valued more as a person. In contrast, China’s merchant class was often belittled and constrained by the government. The Roman emperors were chosen by the army or the Senate and were respected as a divinity. The Chinese emperors were chosen by the Mandate of Heaven and were thought of as the Son of Heaven. The spread of Christianity through the Late Roman Empire went against traditional beliefs regarding the divinity of the emperor. However, the spread of Buddhism in Han China was more easily accepted into their culture, due to its similarity to Chinese values and beliefs. Conclusion Both Roman and first Chinese empires arose from relatively small states Able to subdue neighbors because of discipline and military toughness Ultimately unified widespread territories under strong central governments Fell to a combination of external pressures and internal divisions Happy Studying!