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The Roman World
The Etruscans
Early Rome
The Roman Republic
The Roman Empire
The Flavian Dynasty
The Roman World
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The Roman World
(continued)
Nerva-Antonine Dynasty
Christianity and the Late Roman Empire
The Roman World
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The Roman World > The Etruscans
The Etruscans
• The Origins of Etruria
• Etruscan Artifacts
• Etruscan Religion
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The Roman World > Early Rome
Early Rome
• The Founding of Rome
• The Seven Kings
• Early Roman Society
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The Roman World > The Roman Republic
The Roman Republic
• The Establishment of the Roman Republic
• Structure of the Republic
• Roman Society Under the Republic
• Art and Literature in the Roman Republic
• Republican Wars and Conquest
• Crises of the Republic
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The Roman World > The Roman Empire
The Roman Empire
• Julius Caesar
• Founding of the Roman Empire
• The Pax Romana
• The Julio-Claudian Emperors
• The Last Julio-Claudian Emperors
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The Roman World > The Flavian Dynasty
The Flavian Dynasty
• The Flavian Dynasty
• Military Achievements of the Flavians
• Eruptions of Vesuvius and Pompeii
• Flavian Architecture
• Fall of the Flavian Emperors
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The Roman World > Nerva-Antonine Dynasty
Nerva-Antonine Dynasty
• The Nerva-Antonine Dynasty
• Military Successes of the Nerva-Antonine Dynasty
• Art and Culture Under the Nerva-Antonines
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The Roman World > Christianity and the Late Roman Empire
Christianity and the Late Roman Empire
• Crises of the Roman Empire
• Diocletian and the Tetrarchy
• The Rise of Christianity
• Constantine
• The Shift East
• The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
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Appendix
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The Roman World
Key terms
• absolute monarchy A monarchical form of government in which the monarch has absolute poweramong his or her people. This
amounts to unrestricted political power over asovereign state and its people.
• Aeneas A Trojan survivor of the Trojan War who, according to legend, journeyed to Italy and founded the bloodline that would
eventually lead to the Julio-Claudian emperors.
• Apollo One of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities, variously recognized as a god of music, truth and
prophecy, healing, the sun and light, plague, poetry, and more.
• Ara Pacis Augustae The Altar of Augustan Peace, a sacrificial altar that displays imagery of the peace and prosperity Augustus
achieved during the Pax Romana.
• Augustus The founder of the Roman Empire, known as Octavian during his early years and during his rise to power.
• Battle of the Milvian Bridge A battle that took place between the Roman Emperors, Constantine I and Maxentius, on October
28, 312, and is often seen as the beginning of Constantine's conversion to Christianity.
• Byzantine Empire Also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in the east during
Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when the empire's capital city was Constantinople.
• Byzantium An ancient Greek colony on the site that later became Constantinople, and eventually Istanbul.
• Chi-Rho One of the earliest forms of christogram, which is used by some Christians, and was used by the Roman emperor,
Constantine I (r. 306-337), as part of a military standard.
• Cicero A Roman philosopher, politician, lawyer, orator, political theorist, consul, and constitutionalist.
• coloni A tenant farmer from the late Roman Empire and Early Middle Ages; sharecroppers.
• Colosseum Also known as the Flavian Amphitheater, an oval amphitheater in the center of the city of Rome, Italy, built of
concrete and sand. The largest amphitheater ever built, used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles, such as mock sea
battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology.
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The Roman World
• Crisis of the Third Century A period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasion,
civil war, plague, and economic depression.
• Dacian Wars Two military campaigns fought between the Roman Empire and Dacia during Roman Emperor Trajan's rule.
• damnatio memoriae Latin for "condemnation of memory," a form of dishonor that could be passed by the Roman Senate on
traitors or others who brought discredit to the Roman State; the intent was to erase the malefactor from history, a task
somewhat easier in ancient times, when documentation was limited.
• dictator During Caesar's time, in the late Roman Republic, ruler for life. In the early Republic, by contrast, a dictator was a
general appointed by the Senate, who served temporarily during a national emergency.
• Diocletian Roman emperor from 284 to 305 CE. Established the tetrarchy and instituted economic and tax reforms to stabilize
the Roman Empire.
• Edict of Milan The February 313 CE agreement to treat Christians benevolently within the Roman Empire, thereby ending years
of persecution.
• Edict of Milan An agreement in 313 CE by Constantine and Licinius to treat Christians benevolently within the Roman Empire.
• Etrusca Disciplina A corpusof texts that comprised the Etruscan scriptures, which essentially provided asystematic guide to
divination.
• Etruscan The modern name given to a civilization of ancient Italy in the area corresponding roughly to Tuscany, western
Umbria, and northern Latium.
• Flavian Amphitheatre Better known as the Colosseum, an oval amphitheater in the center of the city of Rome, Italy; used for
gladiatorial games, among other activities.
• Flavian dynasty A Roman imperial dynasty that ruled the RomanEmpire from 69 to 96 CE, encompassing the reigns of
Vespasian and his two sons,Titus and Domitian.
• Gracchi Brothers Brothers Tiberius and Gaius, Roman plebeian nobiles who both served as tribunes in the late 2nd century
BCE. They attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the
plebeians.
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The Roman World
• Hadrian Roman Emperor from 117 to 138 CE. Known for his grand building projects and his philhellenism.
• Hadrian's Villa A large Roman archaeological complex at Tivoli, Italy, built by Emperor Hadrian and based on Greek
architectural styles.
• Hadrian's Wall A defensive fortification in the Roman province of Britannia, begun in 122 CE during the reign of the emperor
Hadrian.
• interrex Literally, this translates to mean a ruler thatpresides over the period between the rule of two separate kings; or, in
otherwords, a short-term regent.
• Julio-Claudiandynasty The first five Roman emperors who ruled theRoman Empire, including Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula,
Claudius, and Nero.
• Julio-Claudian dynasty The first five Roman emperors who ruled theRoman Empire, including Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula,
Claudius, and Nero.
• Julius Caesar A Roman general, statesman, consul, and author, who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise
of the RomanRepublic and the rise of the Roman Empire.
• Limes Germanicus A line of frontier fortifications that bounded the ancient Roman provinces of Germania Inferior, Germania
Superior and Raetia, dividing the Roman Empire and the unsubdued Germanic tribes, from the years 83 to about 260 CE.
• Marcus Aurelius Roman Emperor from 161 to 180 CE, as well as a notable Stoic philosopher.
• Marcus Cocceius Nerva Succeeded Domitian as emperor the same day as his assassination. Founded the Nerva-Antonine
Dynasty.
• Mark Antony Julius Caesar's right hand man, and a member of the Second Triumvirate. He was eventually defeated by
Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE.
• Migration Period Also known as the period of the Barbarian Invasions, it was a period of intensified human migration in Europe
from about 400 to 800 CE, during the transition from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages.
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The Roman World
• Odoacer A soldier, who came to power in the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE. His reign is commonly seen as marking the
end of the Western Roman Empire.
• oligarchic A form of power structure in which powereffectively rests with a small number of people. These people could
bedistinguished by royalty, wealth, family ties, education, corporate, ormilitary control. Such states are often controlled by a few
prominent familieswho typically pass their influence from one generation to the next, butinheritance is not a necessary condition
for the application of this term.
• oligarchic A form of power structure in which power effectively rests with a small number of people. These people could be
distinguished by royalty, wealth, family ties, education, corporate, or military control. Such states are often controlled by a few
prominent families who typically pass their influence from one generation to the next; however, inheritance is not a necessary
condition for the application of this term.
• patrician A group of elite families in ancient Rome.
• patrician A group of ruling class families in ancient Rome.
• patricians Agroup of ruling class families in ancient Rome.
• patricians Agroup of ruling class families in ancient Rome.
• patricians Agroup of ruling class families in ancient Rome.
• patricians A group of ruling class families in ancientRome.
• Pax Romana The long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force experienced by the Roman Empire in
the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. Also sometimes known as the Pax Augusta.
• Pax Romana The long period of relative peacefulness and minimal expansion by the Roman military force that was
experienced by the Roman Empire after the end of the Final War of the Roman Republic, and before the beginning of the Crisis
of the Third Century.
• philhellenism Used to describe both non-Greeks, such as Romans, who were fond of Greek culture, and Greeks who
patriotically upheld their culture.
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The Roman World
• plebeian A general body of free Roman citizens who werepart of the lower strata of society.
• plebeian A general body of free Roman citizens who werepart of the lower strata of society.
• plebeian A general body of free Roman citizens who were part of the lower strata of society.
• plebeians Ageneral body of free Roman citizens who were part of the lower strata ofsociety.
• plebeians Ageneral body of free Roman citizens who were part of the lower strata ofsociety.
• Pliny the Younger A lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome who witnessed the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
• polytheism Theworship of, or belief in, multiple deities, usually assembled into a pantheon ofgods and goddesses, each with
their own specific religions and rituals.
• Pompeii An ancient Roman town-city near modern Naples, in the Campania region of Italy, destroyed during the eruption of
Mount Vesuvius.
• Pompey A military and political leader of the late Roman Republic, who represented the Roman Senate in a civil war against
Julius Caesar.
• Praetorian Guard A force of bodyguards used by Roman Emperors, who also served as secret police and participated in wars.
• Praetorian Guard A force of bodyguards used by the Romanemperors. They also served as secret police, and participated in
wars.
• Praetorian Guard A force of bodyguards used by the Romanemperors. They also served as secret police and participated in
wars.
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The Roman World
• Punic Wars A series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, from 264 BCE to 146 BCE, that resulted in the
complete destruction of Carthage.
• pyroclastic surge A fluidized mass of turbulent gas and rock fragments, ejected during some volcanic eruptions.
• Pyrrhus Greek general and statesman of the Hellenistic era. Later he became king of Epirus (r. 306-302, 297-272 BCE) and
Macedon (r. 288-284, 273-272 BCE). He was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Some of his battles, though
successful, cost him heavy losses, from which the term "Pyrrhic victory" was coined.
• Roman Senate A political institution in ancient Rome, and one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, established in
the first days of the city. By the time of the Roman Empire,it had lost much of its political power as well as its prestige.
• Roman Senate A political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. It was not an elected body, but one whose members were
appointed by the consuls, and later by the censors.
• Rome An Italic civilization that began on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BCE. Located along the
Mediterranean Sea, and centered on one city, it expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world.
• Romulus The founder of Rome, and one of two twin sons of Rhea Silvia and Mars.
• sarcophagi A box-like funeral receptacle for a corpse, mostcommonly carved in stone and displayed above ground.
• tax farming Atechnique of financial management in which future, uncertain revenue streams arefixed into periodic rents via
assignment by legal contract to a third party.
• tetrarchy A form of government in which power is divided between four individuals. In ancient Rome, a system of government
instituted by Diocletian that split power between two rulers in the east, and two rulers in the west.
• the Forum A a rectangular forum (plaza) surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the
center of the city of Rome, originally a large marketplace.
• the Great Persecution The last and most severe persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire.
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The Roman World
• theocracy A form of government in which a deity is officially recognized as the civil ruler, and official policy is governed by
officials regarded as divinely guided, or is pursuant to the doctrine of a particular religion or religious group.
• Torah The central text of the religious Judaic tradition, often referring specifically to the first five books of the twenty-four books
of the Tanakh.
• Trajan Roman emperor from 98 CE until 117 CE. Officially declared by the Senate as optimus princeps, and known for his bold
expansion of Roman borders.
• veristic portraiture A hyper-realistic portrayal of the subject's facial characteristics; a common style of portraiture in the early to
mid-Republic.
• Year of the Four Emperors A year in the history of the Roman Empire, 69 CE, in which four emperors ruled in succession:
Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian.
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The Roman World
Brutus and Lucretia
The statue shows Brutus holding the knife and swearing the oath, with Lucretia.
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The Roman World
Vespasian
A plaster cast of Vespasian in the Pushkin Museum, after an original held in the Louvre.
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The Roman World
Ring Lady
The skeletal remains of a young woman killed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. The skeleton, unearthed from the ruins of Herculaneum in
1982, was named the "Ring Lady" because of the emerald and ruby rings found on the woman's left hand. Two gold bracelets and gold earrings were
also found by the woman's side.
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The Roman World
Roman Empire in 69 CE
The Roman Empire during the Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE). Purple areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and Gaius Licinius Mucianus.
Green areas indicate provinces loyal to Vitellius.
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The Roman World
Illustration depicting Diocletian's Palace (original appearance)
Reconstruction of Diocletian's Palace in its original appearance, upon completion in 305 CE (viewed from the south-west).
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The Roman World
Siege of Jerusalem
This relief from the Arch of Titus depicts Roman soldiers carrying treasures from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah. The city was besieged
and destroyed by Titus in 70 CE.
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The Roman World
Pompeii's "Garden of the Fugitives"
Plaster casts of victims still in situ; many casts are in the Archaeological Museum of Naples.
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The Roman World
The Flavian Amphitheater
The most enduring landmark of the Flavian Dynasty was the Flavian Amphitheater, better known as the Colosseum. Its construction was begun by
Vespasian, and ultimately finished by Titus and Domitian, financed from the spoils of the destruction of the Second Jerusalem Temple.
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The Roman World
Hadrian's Wall
Sections of Hadrian's Wall remain along the route, though much of it has been dismantled over the years, in order to use the stones for various nearby
construction projects.
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The Roman World
The Roman Empire in 271 CE
The divided Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century.
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The Roman World
Zones of Influence in the Roman Tetrarchy
This map shows the four zones of influence under Diocletian's tetrarchy.
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The Roman World
Bust of Pompey the Great
The portraits of Pompey the Great were neither fully idealized, nor were they created in the same veristic style of Republican senators. This bust clearly
shows the specific parting and curl of his hair that would have likened him to Alexander the Great.
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The Roman World
Bust of Cicero
A mid-first century CE bust of Cicero, in the Capitoline Museums, Rome.
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The Roman World
Bust of Vespasian
Vespasian founded the Flavian Dynasty, which ruled the Empire for twenty-seven years.
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The Roman World
Tarquin and Lucretia
Titian's Tarquin and Lucretia (1571).
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The Roman World
Nero
A marble bust of Nero, at the Antiquarium of the Palatine.
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The Roman World
Romulus Augustus Resigns the Crown
Charlotte Mary Yonge's 1880 artist rendition of Romulus Augustus resigning the crown to Odoacer.
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The Roman World
Sarcophagus of the Spouses
Sarcophagus of an Etruscan couple in the Louvre, Room 18.
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The Roman World
Hannibal's Famous Crossing of the Alps
Depiction of Hannibal and his army crossing the Alps during the Second Punic War.
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The Roman World
Roman Conquest of the Italian Peninsula
This map shows the expansion of Roman territory through the various wars fought during the Republican period.
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The Roman World
The Tellus Mater Panel of the Ara Pacis
The eastern wall of the Ara Pacis, which depicts the Tellus Mater surrounded by symbols of fertility and prosperity.
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The Roman World
Gaius Gracchus
This 18th century drawing shows Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the people, presiding over the plebeian council.
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The Roman World
Bust of an Old Man
Veristic portraiture of an Old Man. Verism refers to a hyper-realistic portrayal of the subject's facial characteristics.
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The Roman World
Domitian
Domitian as Emperor (Vatican Museums), possibly recut from a statue of Nero.
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The Roman World
Dacian Wars
Fiery battle scene between the Roman and Dacian armies.
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The Roman World
Hadrian's Villa
The ruins of Hadrian's Villa in their present state.
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The Roman World
Caligula
Emperor Caligula, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek.
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The Roman World
Claudius
Bust of Emperor Claudius.
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Tiberius
Tiberius, Romisch-Germanisches Museum, Cologne
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The Roman World
Constantine
Missorium depicting Constantine's son Constantius II, accompanied by a guardsman with the Chi Rho monogram depicted on his shield.
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Constantinopolis Coin
Coin struck by Constantine I to commemorate the founding of Constantinople.
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Ostrogothic Kingdom
The Ostrogothic Kingdom, which rose from the ruins of the Western Roman Empire.
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Reconstruction of an Etruscan Temple
19th century reconstruction of an Etruscan temple, in the courtyard of the Villa Giulia Museum in Rome, Italy.
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Mars of Todi
The Mars of Todi, a life-sized Etruscan bronze sculpture of a soldier making a votive offering, most likely to Laran, the Etruscan god of war; late 5th to
early 4th century BCE.
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The Roman World
The Capitoline Wolf
The iconic sculpture of Romulus and Remus being suckled by the she-wolf who raised them. Traditional scholarship says the wolf-figure is Etruscan, 5th
century BCE, with figures of Romulus and Remus added in the 15th century CE by Antonio Pollaiuolo. Recent studies suggest that the wolf may be a
medieval sculpture dating from the 13th century CE.
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The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
19th century illustration depicting the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus above the Tiber River during the Roman Republic.
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Roman citizenship
The toga, shown here on a statue restored with the head of Nerva, was the distinctive garb of Roman citizens
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The Roman World
Curia Iulia - The Roman Senate House
The Curia Julia in the Roman Forum, the seat of the imperial Senate.
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Map of the Etruscan Civilization
Extent of Etruscan civilization and the 12 Etruscan League cities.
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The Roman World
Bust of Trajan
Bust of the Emperor Trajan, who ruled from 98-117 CE.
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The Roman World
Bust of Marcus Aurelius
Bust of Marcus Aurelius, who ruled from 161 to 180 CE.
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The Roman World
Bust of Hadrian
Bust of the Emperor Hadrian, who ruled from 117-138 CE.
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The Roman World
The Roman SPQR Banner
"SPQR" (senatus populusque romanus) was the Roman motto, which stood for "the Senate and people of Rome".
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Bust of Sulla
The bust of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, an optimate who marched against Rome and installed himself as dictator in 82-81 BCE.
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Gaius Gracchus Addressing the People
Silvestre David Mirys' rendition of the the tribune, Gaius Gracchus, addressing the people of Rome.
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Bust of Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general, statesman, consul, and notable author of Latin prose.
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The Roman World
Augustus of Prima Porta
The statue of Augustus of Prima Porta is perhaps one of the best known images of the Emperor Augustus. It portrays the emperor as perpetually
youthful, and depicts many of the key propaganda messages that Augustus put forth during his time as emperor.
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Attribution
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The Roman World
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