Transcript Economy and Work in Ancient Rome

Third Century
Crisis
April 3rd, 2012
The Third Century Crisis:
General Remarks
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Empire confronted by several overlapping crises.
Power struggle between commanders of provincial legions.
Attacks across the Rhine and Danube from increasingly organized and effective
German confederacies (i.e. Goths, Franks, Alemanni etc.) and across the Euphrates
from invigorated Persian Empire (Sassanid Persia); Repeated simultaneous invasions
on two fronts.
Several devastating plagues.
Massive economic failure.
Power struggles required loyalty of troops; Raises in pay; devastation of land and
disruption trade caused by internal and external invaders reduced available
resources; debasement of coinage and hyperinflation – increases in pay for the
troops.
One brief period of stability – 253-268 (Age of Gallienus)
Maximinus Thrax (235-38)
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235 – Severus Alexander assassinated by Maximinus Thrax.
Maximinus Thrax Emperor (235-38)
Doubled the pay of the troops.
Drove back invading Goths over the Danube.
Debasement of coinage and strict collection of taxes irritates the senate.
Senate raises up Gordian I and Gordian II as co-emperors (defeated by
Maximinus).
Senate puts forth M. Pupienus Maximus and D. Calvinus Balbinus as coemperors (forced to adopt Gordian III as heir).
Maximinus’ military failures caused his murder.
Pupienus and Balbinus killed by Paetorian Guard for insufficient donatives.
Gordian III emperor.
Gordian III (238-244)
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Civil conflict left frontiers undefended (Goths pour across the
Danube, Persians over the Euphrates.
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Further debasement of coinage.
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242 – Germans driven back across the lower Danube.
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243-44 – Successes against Sassanid Persia; Shapur I
besieged at Antioch; Gordian III dies after falling from his
horse.
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Praetorian Prefect, Philip “The Arab” hailed emperor by the
troops.
Philip the Arab (244-249)
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244 - Peace reached with Shapur I; purchased with 10,000
pounds of gold.
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244-7 – Germans thrown back across the Danube.
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247 – Philip in Rome; cultivating friendly relations with the
senate; Raids of Goths and Carpi across the Danube;
Generals in the East and West hailed emperor by their
troops; C. Messius Quintus Decius sent to restore order on
the Danube; Decius’ soldiers hail him emperor.
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249 – Decius marches toward Rome; Philip defeated and
killed at Verona.
Decius (249-51)
Gallus (251-53)
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Decius inaugurated the first active persecution of Christians as subversives.
251 – Goths cross the lower Danube; Decius and thousands of troops lost
at b. of Abrittus.
C. Vibius Trebonianus Gallus acclaimed emperor by the surviving troops.
Gallus emperor (251-3); Peace concluded with the Goths; allowed to keep
their plunder and high ranking POWs; Distractions on the Danube left
Eastern frontier untended; Persians attack into Syria; Plague.
253 – Gallus moves toward Syria and the Danube legions rebel acclaiming
Aemilius Aemilianus emperor; Gallus killed by his own troops; Raetian
legions acclaimed P. Licinius Valerianus (Valerian) emperor; Aemilianus
marches on Italy but is killed by his own men.
Senate ratifies Valerian as emperor and appoints P. Licinius Egnatius
Gallienus (son) as co-emperor.
The Age of Gallienus (253-68)
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The empire in a mess; Persians invading Syria, Capadoccia, and Mesopotamia;
Germans raiding back and forth across the Rhine and Danube; Plague causing
demographic and economic crises; 18 claimants to the throne.
254 – Gallienus on the Rhine driving back incursions; Marcomanni cross the Danube
and penetrate as far as Ravenna and Mediolanum; bought off with land grants south
of the Danube.
258-9 – Legions in Panonia in open revolt; successfully quelled by Gallienus.
259 – Alemanni invade the Rhone Valley, Franks cross the Rhine and penetrate Gaul,
Spain, and North Africa, Saxons and Jutes engaged in piracy around Britain and
Gaul; Legions on the Rhine, in Spain, and Britain mutiny in favour of Postumius.
Gallienus pre-occupied with Danubian defences; Postumius left as “emperor” in Gaul,
Britain, and Spain; Postumius drives the Franks and Alemanni back across the Rhine.
259-268 – Gallienus on the Danube fighting Goths and would-be usurpers.
268 – The revolt of Aureolus in Italy; Gallienus defeats Aureolus at Mediolanum but
is murdered by his men.
Reforms of Gallienus
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Senators excluded from military commands; replaced by equestrians promoted
through the ranks.
Move away from hard frontier defence to mobile “defence in depth” relying heavily on
cavalry.
Large cavalry detachments (Vexillationes) stationed at key cities to react to a crisis.
New cavalry units comprised of Cataphracti and African javelin men formed into
mobile response units; placed under a magister equitum.
Western territories (i.e. Gaul, Britain, and Spain) nominally independent under
Postumus; Eastern territories nominally independent under Zenobia, queen of
Palmyra.
Equestrians replace senators as provincial governors in imperial (and some
senatorial) provinces.
Decrease in the importance of Rome and the senate; imperial capital wherever the
emperor is; emperor frequently at forward bases with the vexillationes.
A Very Brief Respite
Aurelian (270-75)
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268 – Gallienus assassinated by his own staff officers; succeeded by Claudius II.
268-70 – Claudius II given the cognomen “Gothicus” for driving the Goths beyond the
Danube; died of plague and succeeded by L. Domitius Aurelianus.
271 – Commenced construction of the “Aurelian Wall” around Rome; abandoned
Dacia to facilitate shorter lines of defence.
272-3 – Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, declared independence and formed alliance with
Persia; Zenobia captured and Palmyra destroyed.
273-4 – Aurelian in Gaul; “Gallic Empire” under Tetricus falls quickly to Aurelian.
274 – Aurelian returns to Rome; celebrates triumphs over Zenobia and Tetricus; revalues Roman currency to counter hyper-inflation; Nationalized the baker’s guild to
facilitate bread distribution programme for the urban poor.
275 – Aurelian assassinated by staff officers owing to false rumours.
Empire again plunged into chaos.
The Aurelian Wall
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celio_-_le_mura_tra_porta_san_Sebastiano_e_porta_Ardeatina_1974.JPG
The Descent into Chaos...Again:
Tacitus (275-6) and Probus (276-82)
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Senate declares the elderly M. Claudius Tacitus emperor.
Tacitus (275-6) – Campaigns against Goths and Alans in Asia
Minor; assassinated by his own soldiers; succeeded by M.
Aurelius Probus (magister equitum).
Probus emperor (276-82)
276-77 – Drove back invasions of Franks and Alemanni;
constructed fortifications along Rhine crossing points;
recruited 16,000 Franks and Alemanni into the Roman army.
278-9 – 100,000 Scythians and Bastarnae settled in (largely
depopulated) Thrace; drove back German incursions in Raetia
and Pannonia; drove back Sudanese incursions into Egypt.
282 – Probus undertakes campaign vs. The Persians but is
killed in a mutiny.
The Death Throes of the Principate:
Carus, Carinus, and Numerianus (282-5)
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Troops in Raetia acclaim M. Aurelius Carus (Praetorian Prefect) emperor.
Carinus does not seek ratification from senate; appoints sons (Carinus and
Numerianus) as “Caesars.”
282- Carinus left in command of Italy; Carus and Numerianus move east to
push back barbarian incursions.
283 – Quadi and Sarmatians defeated on the Danube.
284 – Series of rapid victories deep inside Persia; mysterious death of
Carus; Nemerianus quickly assassinated by Arrius Aper (Praetorian Prefect;
troops acclaim Diocles (Diocletian) emperor; Diocletian stabs Aper.
285 – Carinus marches east to defeat Diocletian; armies clash in Moesia;
Carinus’ troops prevailing but is assassinated by one of his officers.
Diocletian sole emperor.
A Summary of Conditions Upon
the Accession of Diocletian
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Military discipline and order completely gone.
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Major demographic crisis; fewer and fewer recruits
and virtually none from Italy.
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Inability to patrol the many miles of frontiers.
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Widespread economic chaos; hyper-inflation; tax
revenues dwindling because of lack of physical
security.
Aurelius Victor on the Poor State of Military
Discipline and Its Consequences
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“After a month or two of unstable rule, Florian was killed by his troops near Tarsus. After him they
accepted Probus, who had been elevated in Illyria. Probus was a man highly skilled in military science,
and almost another Hannibal in the art of exercising troops in various and of hardening young men.
Indeed, just as Hannibal had employed his soldiers in planting olive trees in several places in Africa,
fearing that their idleness might be dangerous to the state and their leaders, so Probus filled Gaul,
Panonnia, and the hills of Moesia with vineyards, after he had worn down the barbarian tribes which had
made incursions when our emperors had been slain through their crimes, and after he had killed
Saturninus in the East and Bonosus with his army at Cologne. Both had attempted, employing the troops
which they had commanded as generals, to seize the imperial power. For this reason, when all the
territory had been recovered and pacified, he is reported to have said that in a short time there would be
no need of soldiers. Provoked by this, the troops, when he compelled them to dig openings and ditches
in order to drain the lands which the winter rains had turned into marshes in the vicinity of Sirmium, his
native city, murdered him near that city in the sixth year of his reign. Thenceforth the military power
gained the ascendant, and the senate has remained until our time deprived of the power and the right of
choosing the emperor. It is uncertain whether this took place through default, with the consent of the
senate, or through fear, or dislike of discord. Yet it is certain that...military discipline could have been
reestablished in consequnce of the moderate conduct of the legions during Tacitus’ reign; that Florian
would thennot have been so bold as to seize power; that finally, if the members of an order so
distinguished and important had spent their lives in military camps, the military would not be bestowed
on anyone, even a good man, by the decision of the soldiery. But, by giving themselves up to the
delights of leisure and fearing for their riches, whose enjoyment and abundance they thought would last
longer than eternity, they paved the way for the soldiery, and almost the barbarians, to dominate them
and posterity.” (Aurelius Victor, Lives of the Emperors 24-27. Lewis & Reinhold, 1990, pp.377-9)
Widespread Depopulation
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“Aquileia was even in earlier times a very big city with a large population of its own. Situated on
the sea like an emporium of Italy and fronting all the Illyrian peoples, she provided the merchants
sailing there with the products received from the interior by land or river, and she shipped into
the hinterland the products from overseas needed by the inhabitants, which their land did not
readily produce because of its cold climate; and also, as they did not cultivate the vine and her
territory was especially productive of wine, she furnished them with an abundance of drink.
Accordingly a large population lived there, consisting not only of citizens but also of foreigners
and merchants. At this time [238 A.D.], however, the population was even further increased by all
the crowds streaming hither from the countryside, leaving the neighbouring towns and villages to
seek safety inside the great city and its surrounding wall. The ancient wall had for the most part
been demolished earlier, since after the advent of Roman rule the cities of Italy no longer needed
walls or weapons, for they enjoyed, in place of wars, profound peace and association in Roman
citizenship. But now necessity drove them to restore the wall, rebuild its ruins, and raise towers
and battlements...The army [of Maximus] crossed over and marched upon the city. Finding the
houses of the suburbs deserted, they cut down all the vines and trees, set some on fire, and
made a shambles of the once thriving countryside...After destroying all this to the root, the army
pressed on to the wall...and strove to demolish at least some part of the wall, so that they might
break in and sack everything, razing the city and leaving the land a deserted pasturage.”
(Herodian, History 8.2.3-4.8. Lewis & Reinhold, pp. 394-5)
Widespread Barbarian
Infiltration
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“He took 16,000 [German] recruits, all of whom he scattered
through the various provinces, incorporating bodies of fifty or
sixty in each detachment or among the soldiers along the
frontier, for he said that the aid the Romans received from the
barbarian auxilliaries must be felt but not seen...Having made
peace, then, with the Persians, he returned to Thrace, where
he settled 100,000 Bastarnians on Roman soil, all of whom
remained loyal. But when he had likewise brought over many
from other tribes – that is, Gepedians, Greuthungians, and
Vandals – they all broke faith, and when Probus was busied
with wars against the pretenders, they roamed over well-nigh
the entire world on foot or in ships and did no little damage to
the glory of Rome.” (Historia Augusta, Life of Probus 14.7,
18.1-2. Lewis & Reinhold, 1990, p. 392)
Diocletian (284-305):
Restoring Political Stability
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Accession of Diocletian inaugurates new phase of Roman history – The
Dominate.
First order of business – est. Control over rebellious commanders/governors
and stop all barbarian incursions.
285 – Maximian chosen as “Caesar”; sent to drive Germanic tribes out of
Roman territory; successfully drives Franks et.al. Over the Rhine; Britain
lost to M. Aurelius Carausius (German commander of the Roman fleet;
Emperor of the north).
286 – Diocletian makes Maximian “Augustus” co-equal with himself.
286-291 – Western affairs left in the hands of Maximian; Diocletian goes
East, drives Germans back across the Danube and shores up defences;
Negotiates peace with Persia regaining control of Mesopotamia and
Armenia.
293 – Establishes a new form of government – the Tetrarchy.
The Rule of Four
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Empire divided in half (East and West).
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Two Augusti (Diocletian in the East, Maximian in the West).
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Each Augustus adopts a “Caesar” as an heir.
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Maximian adopts Contantius Chlorus as Caesar; Diocletian adopts Gallerius as Caesar.
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Each half of the empire under the control of an Augustus and a Caesar; each issued
laws and decrees in the name of all four; minted their own coins.
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Upon death or retirement, each Augustus succeeded by the appointed Caesar; the
new Augusti then adopt new Caesars.
The Tetrarchy
http://antikefan.de/kulturen/Roemisch.html
The Empire Strikes Back
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296 – Contantius defeats Carausius and retakes Britain.
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298 – Alemanni severely mauled by Constantius; Rhine crossings firmly
controlled.
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293-296 – Diocletian subdues tribes along the lower Danube.
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293-5 – Galerius drives the Sudanese out of Egypt.
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296-8 – Galerius and Diocletian repel Persian incursions into Roman
Mesopotamia.
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Persecutions of Christians.
Reforms of Diocletian
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Surrounded the Augusti with a divine aura (Jovialis, Herculius); adoption of new court ceremonial.
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Administrative divisions of the empire re-divided; 40 provinces divided into 105; provinces
grouped together into 12 Dioces presided over by a Vicarius (Vicar); Vicars = equestrians who
supervise provincial governors, collected taxes, distributed justice; governors and vicars hold no
military powers; 12 dioces grouped into 4 prefectures (Gaul, Italy, Illyricum, and the Orient);
Armies commanded by a dux (general) dependent on governors for supplies and authority.
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Military increased by 100,000 stationed in smaller detachments in more numerous provinces;
large mobile field armies under the direct command of the tetrarchs; re-established frontier
defence system in conjunction with mobile response.
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Revamped the coinage; 286 - introduced a new solid gold coin (Solidus – 60 to 1 pound); 293 –
introduced a new silver coin (Argentius – 96 to one pound); 301- introduced price controls; taxes
levied on land and heads, payable in kind and in labour.
From Princeps to Lord
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“By decision of the generals and military tribunes, Valerius Diocletian,
commander of the palace guards, was chosen emperor because of his
wisdom. A mighty man he was, and the following were characteristics of
his: he was the first wear a cloak embroidered in gold and to covet shoes of
silk and purple decorated with a great number of gems. Though this went
beyond what befitted a citizen and was characteristic of an arrogant and
lavish spirit, it was never the less of small consequence in comparison with
the rest. Indeed, he was the first after Caligula and Domitian to allow
himself to be publically called ‘lord,’ and to be named ‘god,’ and to be
rendered homage as such…But Diocletian’s faults were counterbalanced by
good qualities; for even if he took the title of ‘lord,’ he did act [toward the
Romans] as a father.” (Aurelius Victor, Lives of the Emperors 39.1-8. Lewis
& Reinhold, 1990, p. 413)
Edict on Prices
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“We hasten therefore to apply the remedies long demanded
by the situation, satisfied that no one can complain that our
intervention with regulations is untimely or unnecessary,
trivial or unimportant. These measures are directed against
the unscrupulous, who have perceived in our silence of so
many years a lesson in restraint but have been unwilling to
imitate it. For who is so insensitive and so devoid of human
feeling that he can be unaware or has not perceived that
uncontrolled prices are widespread in the sales taking place in
the markets and in the daily life of the cities? Nor is the
uncurbed passion for profiteering lessened either by abundant
supplies or by fruitful years….It is our pleasure, therefore,
that the prices listed in the subjoined the schedule be held in
observance in the whole of our empire (Lewis & Reinhold,
1990, pp. 422-3)
The Abdication of Diocletian
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305 – Diocletian and Maximian abdicate.
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Constantius Chlorus Augustus in the West; adopts
Flavius Valerius Severus as Caesar and heir.
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Galerius Augustus in the East; adopts Maximinus Daia
as Caesar and heir.
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Maximian not happy with forced abdication.