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155 BC Athenian embassy incl. (Skeptic) Carneades visits Rome Roman focus on “practical” philosophy/ ethics Schools of philosophy: Skeptics Eclectics Epicureans Stoics Skeptics Skepsis (Gk: inquiry [into how to achieve mental and emotional tranquillity]) Rejection of philosophical systems Must accept human inability to perceive reality and truth Become indifferent, suspend judgment (epoche) Skeptics Old Skeptics: Earliest Pyrrho of Elis (early 3rd c. BC), then others up to 2nd c. BC New Skeptics: Earliest Aenesidemus of Alexandria (btw. 100 and 40 BC). Later example Sextus Empiricus (d. c. 200 AD) Question of probability Eclectics “Pick and choose” approach Usefulness as dictator of choice of elements from each philosophical tradition. Usefulness determined by “common sense” Famous followers: Cicero (106-43 BC), Plutarch (1st-2nd c. AD), Philo of Alexandria (1st c. AD) Eclectics Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC) Plutarch (1st-2nd c. AD) Lives of the Philosophers Moralia Philo of Alexandria (1st c. AD) Reconciling the Bible and Greek philosophy Epicureans Epicurus of Samos (341-271 BC), founder of the school (garden) of the Epicureans at Athens, 306 BC Titus Lucretius Carus (99-55 BC) De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things) Epicureans “Pleasure is the beginning and end of a life of blessedness.” Philosophy as way to happiness (freedom from human passions) Epicureans Fourfold rule of philosophy: 1. To free men from fear of the gods 2. To free men from fear of death 3. To show that pleasure is easy to attain 4. To expose short-lived nature of suffering and evil Canonics, Physics, Ethics Epicureans Epicurean Canonics (logic): Canon/guideline/criterion of truth Sensations, anticipations, emotions Epicureans Epicurean Physics: Rejection of gods. Materialistic view of the universe Atomism Sensations through images (Gk: eidola) Epicureans Epicurean Physics: The problem of evil. Gods… or or or Want to eliminate evil but cannot - impotent Do not want to but can - envious Neither want to nor can - impotent and envious Want to and can - so why is there evil? Gods must be indifferent to human destiny Epicureans Epicurean Ethics: Happiness (ataraxia [freedom from care] and aponia [lack of pain]) consists in pleasure Pleasures as natural and necessary, natural and unnecessary, unnatural and unnecessary. First as essential goal, last to be avoided Epicureans Epicurean Ethics: Pleasures should leave one master of oneself and imperturbable. Emphasis on spiritual pleasures esp. friendship Natural and necessary pleasures: equanimity, health/comfort, sustenance of life Eliminating causes of trouble and pain Epicureans Epicurean Ethics: Tranquillity, moderation, self-restraint Limit needs to avoid exposing oneself to hurt, incl. avoiding public office Wise man: serene, moderate, temperate, free of care, ever-balanced, imperturbable