Clinical Slide Set. Preoperative Evaluation for Noncardiac Surgery
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Transcript Clinical Slide Set. Preoperative Evaluation for Noncardiac Surgery
In the Clinic
PREOPERATIVE
EVALUATION
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
What is the risk for medical complications
from surgery in healthy patients?
Risk for serious medical complications: <0.1%
Evaluate preoperatively to predict risk for serious
medical complications
Use focused history and physical exam
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
How does the procedure influence risk for
complications in healthy patients
undergoing surgery?
Influences risk for complications independent of other
patient risk factors
Complexity: third strongest predictor of postoperative
morbidity after low albumin and ASA class (VHA study)
Influences risk for specific types of complications
Upper abdominal and thoracic surgery: postoperative
pulmonary complications occur in 10%-40%
Other types of surgery: postoperative pulmonary
complications rarely reported
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
Perioperative Risk Classifications for Surgical Procedures
Low (<1%)
Superficial surgery
Breast
Dental
Cataract
Intermediate (1%–5%)
High (>5%)
Intrathoracic
(nonmajor)
Intraperitoneal
Carotid (CEA or CAS)
Endoscopic
Endovascular
aneurysm repair
Thyroid
Head and neck surgery
Gynecologic, minor
Aortic, major vascular
surgery, peripheral
vascular surgery
Major abdominal
surgery, prolonged
procedures with large
fluid shifts or blood
loss
Esophagectomy
Neurologic or
orthopedic, major
Pneumonectomy
Urologic, minor
Urologic or
gynecologic, major
Reconstructive or
cosmetic
Lung, liver, or
pancreas
transplantation
Renal transplantation
Orthopedics, minor
Adrenal resection
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
How do underlying chronic conditions
influence the risk for medical
complications of surgery?
More comorbid conditions = higher risk for perioperative
complications
Increasing ASA Class = increasing morbidity, mortality
Grade I: Healthy patient
Grade II: Mild systemic disease—no functional limitations
Grade III: Severe systemic disease—definite functional
limitation
Grade IV: Severe systemic disease that is a constant threat
to life
Grade V: Moribund patient not expected to survive without
the surgery
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
How do lifestyle factors influence the risk
for perioperative complications?
Ability to exercise strongly predicts perioperative
medical complications
Smoking increases risk for perioperative pulmonary
complications
Preoperative alcohol consumption increases risk for
perioperative morbidity
Alcohol intake >60 g/d increases mortality risk
Obesity increases overall surgical risk
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
CLINICAL BOTTOM LINE: Risk Factors...
Comorbid conditions increase the risk for complications
Ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, HF
Diabetes mellitus, CKD, bleeding disorders, liver disease
Other patient factors that affect perioperative risk
Poor nutritional status, obesity
Smoking, hazardous alcohol use, illicit substance use
Poor exercise tolerance
Type of surgery influences the risk of complications
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
Who should undergo preoperative evaluation?
All patients scheduled for surgery
Very low-risk procedures
May need only to confirm lack of significant risk factors
Minor surgery and patient has no medical history
Patient screening by phone may suffice
More complex surgery and patient comorbidities
Consider evaluation by physician experienced in
preoperative assessment
Screening triage tool may be useful
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
What are the essential elements of a
preoperative history and physical exam?
Patient’s age, whether patient pregnant
Exercise tolerance and ability to perform ADL
Medication use
Use of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit substances
Overall health, including comorbid conditions, reaction
to past surgeries, experience with anesthesia
Risk factors for cardiac, pulmonary, infectious
complications
Physical: look for signs of undiagnosed or
decompensated conditions
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
Which laboratory tests should be
performed preoperatively?
Base laboratory testing on history, physical exam, and
planned surgical procedure
For minor procedures, routine testing not indicated if
history and physical exam are normal
Consider comorbid conditions and medications
Age alone is not a reason to order tests
No need to repeat testing if tests were done within 4
months of surgery, results were normal, and clinical status
is unchanged
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
Lab Tests Before Elective Noncardiac Surgery
Hemoglobin: Symptoms of anemia or anticipated major blood
loss
Electrocardiography: Known coronary artery disease, diabetes,
uncontrolled hypertension, chronic kidney disease
Chest radiography: Symptoms or examination findings
suggesting active pulmonary disease
Platelet count: Myelotoxic medications or a history of bleeding
diathesis, myeloproliferative disorder, or liver disease
Prothrombin time: Recent or long-term antibiotic use, warfarin
use, or a history of bleeding diathesis, liver disease, or
malnutrition
Partial thromboplastin time: Heparin use or a history of
bleeding diathesis
continued…
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
Lab Tests Before Elective Noncardiac Surgery
Electrolytes: Medications that affect electrolytes, renal
insufficiency, or congestive heart failure,
Creatinine and blood urea nitrogen: CKD, hypertension,
diabetes, cardiac disease, major surgery, medications that may
affect renal function
Glucose: Known diabetes, obesity
Liver function tests: Cirrhosis
Leukocyte count: Myelotoxic medications or symptoms
suggesting infection or myeloproliferative disorder
Urinalysis: Symptoms suggestive of UTI, instrumentation of the
genital-urinary tract (not indicated before total joint replacement)
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
When should clinicians consider
preoperative cardiac stress testing?
When patients have worrisome symptoms
Evaluate for cardiac ischemia
Decide about further testing based on urgency of surgery,
presence of recent ACS, combined clinical/surgical
procedure risk, and functional capacity
Tools to determine cardiac complication risk
Revised Cardiac Risk Index
American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality
Improvement Program risk calculator
Myocardial infarction (MI) or cardiac arrest (MICA) tool
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
CLINICAL BOTTOM LINE: Evaluation...
Essential elements of preoperative history and physical:
Establishing overall health and underlying conditions
Pregnancy, exercise tolerance
Reaction to previous anesthesia and surgery
Use of medications, tobacco, alcohol, illicit drugs
Laboratory testing: history and physical should guide
Noninvasive cardiac testing: only in patients with elevated
cardiac risk and poor functional status if the results are
likely to change management
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
How should clinicians manage medications
in the perioperative period?
Continue essential medications
Discontinue or adjust dose of other medications
Only stop medications with significant potential for AEs
Beware potential for withdrawal or rebound syndromes
Aspirin/NSAIDs: stop before surgery if bleeding risk
outweighs thrombosis risk
Oral hypoglycemics: withhold on morning of surgery
(maintain glucose control perioperatively with insulin)
Diuretics and ACE inhibitors: often withheld unnecessarily
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
What should clinicians recommend to
reduce the risk for postoperative
thromboembolic complications?
Stratify risk preoperatively in all surgical patients
Caprini score or Rogers score
Prescribe measures to reduce risk
VTE prophylaxis based on risk class, surgical procedure
Early ambulation
Pharmacologic and mechanical methods
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
What should clinicians recommend to
reduce the risk for postoperative surgical
site infections?
Preoperative antibiotic prophylaxis based on the
surgical procedure
First-generation cephalosporin is a frequent choice
Give within 1 h before skin incision
Discontinue by 24 h after surgery
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
When are supplemental (stress-dose)
steroids indicated?
When patients have taken >5 mg/d prednisone (or
equivalent) for ≥3 weeks within 6-12 months before
surgery, and they will have a procedure of at least
moderate stress
Either, test the patient’s response to cosyntropin
preoperatively; if the test result is positive, administer
larger-than-physiologic doses of hydrocortisone
Or, skip testing and simply administer larger-thanphysiologic doses of hydrocortisone
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
Perioperative Stress-Dose Corticosteroid Therapy
Major surgeries
Start hydrocortisone, 75–100 mg IV before surgery
50 mg IV every 8 h for 24–48 h
Reassess level of stress and either continue 50 mg dose
or taper to 25 mg every 8 h and then resume usual
outpatient dose in uncomplicated cases
Moderate surgeries
Start hydrocortisone, 50 mg IV before surgery
25 mg every 8 h for 3 doses
Resume usual outpatient dose in uncomplicated cases
Minor procedures
Usual dose on the day of surgery (some advocate giving
25 mg IV hydrocortisone preoperatively or doubling usual
oral dose)
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
What are the indications for perioperative
β-blockade?
Theoretically protects heart from excessive workload
and prevents plaque rupture and subsequent
thrombosis, cardiac ischemia, and infarction
However study results have been mixed
Most studies suggest perioperative β-blockers are
associated with reduced MI and nonfatal MI and
increased bradycardia, hypotension, and stroke
Effect on total mortality is unclear but may be increased
Optimal type and dose of β-blocker unknown
If using a β-blocker, start it >24 h before surgery
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
What are special preoperative considerations
for patients with cardiovascular disease?
Coronary artery disease
Prevent cardiac events by optimizing preoperative
medications and selective revascularization
Recognize the risk for perioperative stent thrombosis when
there are recently placed coronary stents
Heart failure
Delay elective surgery with decompensated HF
Optimize preoperative medications
Investigate unexplained dyspnea, HF with change in
condition, and suspected valvular heart disease
continued…
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
Rhythm and conduction disorders
Common after open cardiac and thoracic procedures
Increased with a history of AF, advanced age, and HF
If at high risk for AF: consider β-blocker or amiodarone
preoperatively
Warfarin can be stopped 5 days before surgery if the
patient has chronic nonvalvular AF
Stop novel oral anticoagulants 1 to 3 d before surgery
based on half-lives, renal function, and bleeding risk
Interrogate defibrillators and pacemakers before surgery
continued…
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
Suspected valve disease
Order transthoracic ECHO
Patients with symptomatic aortic stenosis require aortic
valve replacement before other surgery
Hypertension
Is the reason many surgical procedures are cancelled
Obtain preoperative ECG, check for renal insufficiency and
electrolyte disturbances, and continue β-blockade and
calcium-channel blockers
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
What are special preoperative considerations
for patients with pulmonary disease?
To minimize postoperative pulmonary complication risk
Cease smoking at least 4 to 8 weeks before surgery
Conduct lung expansion maneuvers or CPAP
Reduce airflow obstruction and treat respiratory infection
Preoperative chest PT and inspiratory muscle training
Screen patients for OSA (STOP-BANG questionnaire)
Spirometry: only for those having lung resection, active
wheezing, unexplained impaired exercise tolerance
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
What are the special preoperative
considerations for patients with diabetes?
Check basic chemistry panel
Advise patients on adjusting medications and
monitoring glucose levels
Elevated glucose, HbA1C increases complication risk
Early-morning surgery limits disruption of glycemic
control
Use an insulin pump or insulin glargine for bowel prep,
history of hypoglycemic episodes, or late-day surgery
Morning of surgery: reduce NPH dose to 1/2 or 2/3 and
withhold short-acting insulin and oral hypoglycemics
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
What are special preoperative considerations
for patients with chronic kidney disease?
Preoperative evaluation
CBC, serum chemistries and creatinine concentration,
estimated GFR
ECG in patients with existing or possible cardiac disease
Assess and optimize fluid status
Dialyze patients on hemodialysis the day before surgery
Perioperative measures
Avoid potentially nephrotoxic medications
Adjust dose for drugs metabolized by the kidney
Continue immunosuppressants for renal transplants
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
What are special preoperative considerations
for patients with liver disease?
Evaluate based on Child-Pugh criteria or MELD score
Child-Pugh: albumin, bilirubin, INR, ascites, hepatic
encephalopathy
MELD: INR, bilirubin, creatinine, sodium
Cancel elective surgery for patients at very high risk
Acute hepatitis
Child’s C criteria
MELD scores > 15
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
What are the special preoperative
considerations for patients with
rheumatologic disease?
Precautions to avoid perioperative neurologic problems
Cervical collar
Fiberoptic intubation
Preoperative cervical spine films to assess C1–2 stability
Careful neck positioning
Rheumatologic treatments may increase infection risk
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
What are the special considerations for
pregnant women undergoing surgery?
Conduct a pregnancy test in all women of child-bearing
potential
Postpone nonemergency surgery in pregnant women
because surgery increases the perioperative risk for
Miscarriage
Preterm labor and delivery
Intrauterine growth restriction
Stillbirth
Anesthesia risk to fetus, particularly in first trimester
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.
CLINICAL BOTTOM LINE: Risk
Reduction...
Preoperative evaluation in unstable heart or lung disease
Determine which medications to stop or continue
Prevent VTE with early postoperative ambulation and
pharmacologic or mechanical prophylaxis
Preoperative prophylactic antibiotics
Minimize length of the preoperative hospital stay
Limit use of immunosuppressive drugs
Follow recommended guidelines for catheters
Control glucose in patients with diabetes
© Copyright Annals of Internal Medicine, 2016
Ann Int Med. 165 (6): ITC6-1.