Wound Management
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Transcript Wound Management
Wound Management
Presenter: Susan Thompson, DO
Christiana Care Health Systems
Delaware, USA
Authors: Susan Thompson, DO; Nicole Y.
Ottens, DO; Donald J. Sefcik, DO, MBA
Case One
A 22 year-old male presents with wounds
involving his right hand. He was involved in
an altercation at a bar. He grabbed a knife
during an attempted stabbing. He has
incisions on the palmar aspect of his index,
long and ring fingers.
- What do you need to consider?
Case Two
A 42 year-old female presents with a
wound on her left forearm. While
carrying a letter-opener, she was running
to answer a telephone at work and
tripped. She stabbed herself.
- What do you need to consider?
Case Three
A 9 year-old female presents with a wound
above her left eye sustained during a bicycle
accident.
- What do you need to consider?
Case Four
A 14 year-old male presents with a wound to
the right thigh. He was bitten by the family pet.
- What do you need to consider?
Introduction
• Open wound injury comprises a significant component
of emergency department (ED) workload.
• Three major causes are falls up to 1 meter; contact
with cutting or piercing objects; or having been struck
or collided with.
• Most are unintentional and only 3% are due to assault.
– 12% - injuries to face, head and upper neck.
– 62% - injuries to upper extremities.
• 88% of all wound presentations to the ED are repaired
and the patient is discharged to home.
– Almost 50% referred to general practitioners and specialists
for review.
• This lecture will cover those wounds that are suitable
for repair in the ED.
Types of Wounds
• Abrasion
– Forcible avulsion of skin
• Laceration
– Simple – usually the result of shearing forces
– Avulsion – usually the result of tension forces
– Stellate – usually the result of compressive forces
• Puncture
– Wound is deeper than it is wide
– Difficult to explore
• Bite
Wound Care Principles
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Inspection
Preparation
Anesthesia
Closure
Dressings/immobilization
Prophylaxis
Follow-up
Clinical Presentation
• Initial assessment will direct plan of care for
the patient and the wound
– What are the injured structures?
– How many wounds are present and % of
surface area involved?
– What is the likely mode of repair?
– Will repair need to be delayed for any reason?
– What are the likely complications?
Clinical Presentation
• Important factors of the History:
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Time and mechanism of injury
Any pre-hospital intervention
Likelihood of foreign bodies
Tetanus immunization status
PMHx (immunocompromised, diabetes)
Allergies to local anesthetics, antibiotics, etc.
Current medications (warfarin, cytotoxics)
Wound Inspection
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Is the wound life threatening?
Is it an acute or chronic wound?
What was the timing of the injury?
What was the nature of the injury?
Initial Evaluation
• General exam
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A, B, C’s
Vital signs
Brief head-to-toe examination
Remove any clothing that may restrict
examination
– Remove constricting rings or other jewelry
Initial Examination
• Focused local examination
– Size and depth of wound
– Gross muscle and tendon function
• Full range of motion testing
– Nervovascular status
– Initial cleansing for adequate visualization
• This step often requires anesthesia
• Rule out deep soft tissue injuries
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Tendons
Ligaments
Joint capsules
Neurovascular structures
Fascia/compartments
Wound inspection
Tendon injuries
• An injury to the tendon at the base of a wound
may not be apparent in all positions of the limb or
body part
– The tendon may only be visible when the limb is the
position it was at the time of injury
– Marked pain with a particular movement of the
muscle/tendon may be a clue to the underlying
injury and the presence of a tendon injury
Wound Inspection
Muscle injuries
• Note any loss of function
– Again, may need analgesia
• Determine if fascia is compromised
Wound Inspection
Foreign bodies (FB)
– Depending on mechanism of injury
• Penetrating objects (GSW)
• Shattered glass
• Soil, twigs, leaves
• Shrapnel
• Broken off needles, etc.
– Penetrating FB’s do not always remain local
– Consider the course of the FB and the
possible structures damaged
Wound Inspection
Identifying foreign bodies
– Direct visualization and removal
– Radiographs
• Radio-opaque FB’s such as gravel, metal,
pencil lead, glass >2mm1
• Place a radio-opaque marker over the wound
to assist with location of the FB
– Ultrasound
• Detect radio-lucent objects larger than 2.5mm
• Gas in an open wound makes US less
sensitive
1 Lammers R. Foreign bodies in wounds. In: Singer AJ, Hollander JE, eds. Lacerations and acute wounds: an evidence
based guide. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 2003;147
Wound Inspection
Look for associated injuries
• Imaging
– Radiographs
• Possible underlying fractures
• Suspicion of joint involvement
• Radio-opaque FB
– Ultrasound
• Fluid, hematomas in tissues
• Vascular structure injuries
• Radio-lucent FB
Other Considerations
• Rabies Risk
• Tetanus risk
• Unknown tetanus status
• “Dirty” wound
• Subsequent infection
Tetanus Considerations
• Clostridium tetani
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Anaerobic bacterium
Present in soil and animal feces
3-21 day incubation period
Bacteria produces toxin in the wound
Toxin causes severe muscle spasm and
contraction, convulsions
– Death occurs commonly from respiratory
failure, rhabdomyolysis and renal failure
Tetanus Considerations
Wounds that are prone to
Tetanus
Patients that are prone to
Tetanus
• Compound fractures
• Elderly2
• Deep penetrating wounds
• Wounds containing foreign
bodies
• Crush injuries or wounds with
extensive tissue damage,
burns
• Wounds contaminated with
soil or horse manure
• Wound cleansing delayed
more than 3-6 hours
• Persons >60 y/o are at a sixfold increased risk of
acquiring tetanus than those
at any younger age
• Having 2 or more prior doses
of tetanus toxoid puts one at
lower risk for death from
tetanus
• Tetanus antibody levels
decline with age, and only
28% of the population >70
have protective levels
2 National Health and Medical Research Council, the Australian Immunization Handbook, 9 th Edn. Canberra:
NHMRC, 2008
Tetanus Management
Tetanus vaccination schedule for acute wound management1
Vaccination
History
(CDT) Td
Type of Wound
DTP, DT or
tetanus
toxoid
Tetanus
immunoglobulin
3 doses or
more
<5y since last
dose
All wounds
No
No
5-10y since
last dose
Clean minor wounds
No
All other wounds
Yes
No
All wounds
Yes
No
Uncertain
Clean minor wounds
Yes
No
Less than 3
doses
All other wounds
Yes
Yes
>10y since
last dose
DTP: diptheria, tetanus, pertussis for children before the 8th birthday
DT: child diptheria tetanus (CDT) if pertussis is contraindicated
Td: adult diptheria tetanus (ADT) for children after their 8th birthday
1 Lammers R., Foreign bodies in wounds. In: Singer, AJ, Hollander, JE, Lacerations and acute wounds: an evidencebased guide. 2009
General Principles
• Purposes of acute wound repair
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Control Bleeding
Promote Healing
Decrease Risk of infection
Minimize scarring
General Principles
Wound-healing Mechanisms
• Wounds never gain more than 80% of the
strength of intact skin3
• Three phases of wound healing
– Days 1-5, inflammatory phase
• No gain in strength of the wound
– Days 5-14, fibroplasia and epithelialization
• Rapid increase in wound strength
– Day 14 onwards, maturation
• Production, cross-linking and remodeling of
collagen
3 Moy, RL, Lee A, Zalka A. Commonly used suturing techniques in skin surgery. American Family Physician
1991; 44:1625-1634.
General Principles
• Factors that affect the rate of wound healing
– Technical factors of the repair
– Anatomic factors
• Intrinsic blood supply, location over a joint
– Drugs
• Steroids, cytotoxics, etc.
– Associated conditions and diseases
• Diabetes, vitamin C, Zinc deficiency, etc.
– General nutritional state of the patient
General Principles
• When to Repair
- Low Risk Wounds
• Primary Closure can be done
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Extremity wounds can be closed within 6 hours
Torso wounds can be closed within 12 hours
Facial wounds can be closed within 24 hours
- High Risk Wounds
• Primary closure may not be indicated
• Delayed primary closure option
• Wound may need to be allowed to heal by
secondary or tertiary intention
General Principles
• When to Consult/Refer
– Neurovascular compromise
– Tendon or Ligament involvement
– Wound characteristics
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Wound size
Severe contamination
Open fractures
Amputations
Joint involvement
– History of prior wound dehiscence
– Cosmetic concerns
• Skills of plastic surgeon required
• Often this is a later referral and may not be done until healing
completion a year later
General Principles
• Indications for delayed closure
– Puncture wounds
• Bacteria has been deposited deep into tissues
and has high incidence of infection
• Thoroughly lavage and allow healing by
secondary intention
– Wounds unable to be adequately debrided
– Contaminated wounds more than 6 hours old
– Too much tension in the wound, particularly
with crush injury
Wound Preparation
Methods to minimize risk of infection
– Solution
• Antiseptic solutions unnecessary4
• Sterile saline or tap water acceptable5
– Irrigation (“The solution to pollution is
dilution”)
• Copious irrigation decreases infection risk
• Sufficient pressure and volume are important
• Various techniques have been described
– Debridement
• Remove foreign bodies, necrotic and nonviable tissue
4 Dire DJ, Welch AP. A comparison of wound irrigation solution used in the Emergency Department. Annals of
Emergency Medicine 1996; 19: 704.
5 Bansal BC, Weike PA, Perkins SD, Abramo TJ. Tap water irrigation of lacerations. American Journal of
Emergency Medicine 2002; 20: 469.
Wound Preparation
• Essential to remove all contaminants, foreign
bodies and devitalized tissue prior to closure
• Universal precautions
• Be aware of latex allergy
• Powder-free gloves6
– Powders, starches in the wound will delay
healing and produce granulomas
6 Ellis H. Hazards from surgical gloves. Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England
2007; 79:161-163
Wound Preparation
• Hair can be removed by clipping 1-2cm
above the skin with scissors
• Shaving with a razor is associated with an
increased infection rate
• Scalp wounds closed without prior hair
removal heal with no increase in infection7
7 Howell JM, Morgan JA,. Scalp lacerations repair without prior hair removal. American Journal of Emergency
Medicine 1988; 6:7.
Wound Anesthesia
• Proper cleansing and closure of wounds
requires adequate anesthesia
• General anesthesia only occasionally
indicated
– Extensive or multiple wounds
– Requiring lengthy debridement/scrubbing
– When local infiltration would require more than
the safe dose of local anesthetic
Wound Anesthesia
Anesthetic Agent Examples
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Procaine
Lidocaine
Bupivicaine
Each of these combined w/epinepherine
Anesthetic Techniques
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Topical
Local infiltration
Regional / nerve blocks
Intra-articular anesthesia
Hematoma blocks
General anesthesia
Wound Anesthesia
Agents
– Lidocaine 1 or 2%
• Onset: 2-5 minutes
• Duration: 1-2 hours
• Maximum dose: 4.5 mg/kg
– Bupivicaine 0.25 or 0.5%
• Onset: 8-12 minutes
• Duration: 4-8 hours
• Maximum dose: 2 mg/kg
– Because of lack of clinical trials, bupivicaine not
recommended for children <12, however it is
commonly used without problems in children
8 McGhee DL. Anesthetic and analgesic techniques. Roberts and Hedges, Clinical Procedures in Emergency
Medicine. 5th edn. 2010: 490-491
Wound Anesthesia
Agents
•Addition of Epinepherine to local anesthetic
– Advantages
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Provides hemostasis
Prolongs duration of action of the anesthetic agent
Slows absorption; allows increased dose
Increases level of blockade
– Disadvantages
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Increased infection; impairs host defenses
Delays wound healing
Do not use in areas with terminal arteries
Toxicity – catecholamine reaction
Wound Anesthesia
Techniques
• Topical application
– Helpful with pediatric patients, small wounds,
and/or prior to injections of anesthetic agents
– Ingredients:
• Lidocaine 4%, epinepherine bitartrate 0.1%, tetracaine
0.5%, sodium metabisulfate
– Application instructions:
• Apply 1-3 ml to laceration with cotton swab
• Secure remainder of dose using gauze
– Tape for 20-30 minutes
• Do not exceed 4mg/kg of lidocaine (up to 280mg)
– Lidocaine 4% is 40 mg/ml (7ml = 280 mg)
Wound Anesthesia
Techniques
• Local Infiltration
– Infiltration of agent around and into the wound
– Considered quicker and safer than regional or general
anesthesia
– Can provide local hemostasis
– A relatively large dose of drug needed to anesthetize
certain wounds8
– Can distort the tissues
8 McGhee DL. Anesthetic and analgesic techniques. Roberts and Hedges, Clinical Procedures in Emergency
Medicine. 5th edn. 2010: 490-491
Wound Anesthesia
Techniques
• Regional nerve block
– Infiltration at a site proximal to the wound
– Nerve exit site that innervates the wound area
– Can anesthetize a large area with a small amount of
agent
– Less distortion to the wound area
– Less risk of infection
– Depends on operator skill and comfort with procedure
Types of Wound Closure
Chemical Adhesives
– Useful on small, linear, dry wounds under low tension
– Topical antibacterial ointments can affect integrity
– Non-toxic, however avoid getting into the eye
Wound Tape (Steri-strips)
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Paper tape reinforced with rayon
Easy to apply, good with fragile skin
Most useful with small, linear, low tension, dry wounds
Adherence may be improved by the application of adhesive
adjuncts (tincture of benzoin)
• Do not get into the wound, can be very painful and
potentiate infection
– Tape and staples have lower rates of infection than closure
with conventional sutures
Types of Wound Closure
Staples
– Rapidly and easily applied
– Cause less tissue reactivity
– On appropriately chosen wounds, cosmetic results
comparable to sutures
– Must be removed with an appropriate device
Sutures
– Multiple decisions regarding suture type, size and suturing
techniques need to be made
– Provide more precision for delicate skin
– Able to close multiple layers of tissue and complicated
wounds and lacerations
Suture Types
Absorbable
• Maintain tensile strength for less than 60 days
– Polyglactin (Vicryl); polyglycolic acid (Dexon)
Non-absorbable
• Maintain tensile strength for longer than 60 days
– Silk
• Good tensile strength
• Increased infection rate and tissue reactivity
– Nylon (Ethilon; Dermalon); Polypropylene (Prolene;
Surgilene)
• Good tensile strength
• Less reactivity and infection
• Require more knots to secure
Suture Size
Guidelines
(the larger the number the smaller the diameter)
– Face: 5-0 or 6-0
– Scalp: 4-0 or 5-0
– Hands: 4-0 or 5-0
– Trunk: 3-0 or 4-0
– Feet: 3-0 or 4-0
– High tension areas: 3-0 or 4-0
• Ex. over joints
Suturing Techniques
Overview
– Goal is to align tissues vertically
• EVERT tissue margins
• Minimize tension
• Line up anatomical landmarks
• If you don’t like a stitch, take it out
– Learn how to appropriately do instrument ties
• First tie (throw) is a double loop
• Second tie (throw) completes the first square
knot
Suturing Techniques
Subcutaneous layer closure
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–
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absorbable suture material necessary
Goal is to approximate the wound deeply
Work from the bottom to top
Suture knots should be at the bottom of the
wound
Suturing Techniques
Skin Closure
– Simple interrupted
• Most commonly used
• Each stitch placed individually
• Place equal distance apart
– Distance varies by body part
– 2-3mm on face; 5mm to 10mm on torso
• Close wound by repeatedly bisecting
– Avoid the “dog ear”
Suturing Techniques
Skin Closure
– Continuous (running)
• Begin at one end of wound and rather than cutting the
suture after the knot is made, continue to loop through
wound
• Advantage: fewer knots (weak points of stitches); even
tension distribution
• Disadvantage: if suture breaks, entire run may unravel
• No increase in wound strength with use of running
sutures9
9 McClean NR, Fyfe AH, Flint EF, et al. Comparison of skin closure using sontinuous and interrupted nylon sutures.
British Journal of Sugery. 1999; 67: 633-635
Suturing Techniques
Skin Closure
– Mattress
• Variations of interrupted stitches
• Vertical mattress
– Used to evert edges with a natural tendency to roll
inward
• Horizontal mattress
– Redistributes tension on deeper wounds and everts
wound edges
Wound Follow-up
Prophylactic Antibiotics
– Literature is controversial
• If initiated – the sooner the better
– Ideally the first dose given intravenously prior to
wound closure
• Indications include:
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Grossly contaminated wounds
Open fractures
Human and animal bite wounds
Immunocompromised patients
Patients with prostheses
Suture Removal
Scalp:
7-10 days
Face:
3-5 days
Trunk:
7-14 days
Extremities: 7-14 days
– Near joints
• Flexor aspect: 7-10 days
• Extensor aspect: 10-14 days
With immunocompromised patient consider delaying
suture removal
Dressings
• Dressings and subsequent wound care are as
important as the initial closure technique
• Nonadherent dressing and gauze wrap
• Wound should remain moist
• Should not be immersed or soaked
• Initial dressing should ideally remain on until suture
removal
– Change if its ability to absorb fluid is exceeded
– If not possible, dressing may be removed 24
hours after wound closure, bathed or showered
and dabbed dry
• Contaminated wounds should be re-evaluated at 48
hours post-closure
Wound Follow-up
Information regarding follow-up
– Discuss when wound should be examined next
– Discuss signs and symptoms of infection
– Discuss wound care
• Avoid wound immersion
• Application of topical agents
• Wound dressing changes if advised
– Advise when sutures/staples need to be removed
– Remind the patient about scarring potential
• Keep healing skin out of direct sunlight
Complications
• Diabetes and peripheral vascular disease
– greater risk of infection and poor wound healing in
wounds of the lower extremities.
• Prior mastectomy patients, or patients with
chronic edema of the affected area
– more likely to develop infection and poor wound
healing due to poor lymphatic and venous circulation.
• Splenectomy, liver dysfunction, autoimmune
disease
– poor healing.
• Smokers
– impaired collagen production in healing wounds10
10 Jorgensen LN, Kallenhave F, Chrsitensen E, Siana JE, Less Collagen production in smokers. Surgery 1998; 123:450-455.
Summary - Essentials
1. Good cosmesis can be achieved in the
Emergency Department with conservative
treatment, thorough debridement, and
accurate apposition of everted skin edges.
Summary - Essentials
2. Choose a suture that is monofilament,
causes little tissue reactivity, and retains
tensile strength until the strength of the
healing wound is equal to that of the suture.
Summary - Essentials
3. Dirty, contaminated, open wounds should
generally be cleansed, debrided and closed
within 6 hours to minimize the chance of
infection.
Summary - Essentials
4. Suspected tendon injuries require
examination of the full range of movement
of joints distal to the wound while observing
the tendon in the base of the wound for
breaches. This is often done under
anesthesia
Summary - Essentials
5. The success of a tendon repair (as
measured by function) related in large part
to the postoperative care and therapy, not
simply to the suture and wound closure
Summary - Essentials
6. Appropriate splinting and elevation of limb
wounds at risk of infection takes
precedence over antibiotics in the
postoperative prevention of infection
Summary - Essentials
7. If prophylactic antibiotics are used, they
should be given intravenously prior to
wound closure to achieve adequate
concentrations in the tissues and
hematomasthat may collect. There is no
need for antibiotics with simple lacerations
not involving tendons, joints or nerves
Summary - Essentials
8. Wounds that breach body cavities, such as
the peritoneum or joints, or involving flexor
tendons, nerves and named arteries,
should be referred to a specialist for
consideration of repair and inpatient care
Summary - Essentials
9. Foreign bodies such as clay chemically
impair wound healing
Summary - Essentials
10.Puncture wounds such as bites may be
managed by either second-intention healing
after thorough lavage, or better still by
excisional debridement, lavage, antibiotics
and atraumatic closure, if less than 24
hours old (preferably less than 6 hours)
References
1.
Lammers R. Foreign bodies in wounds. In: Singer AJ, Hollander JE, eds. Lacerations and
acute wounds: an evidence based guide. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 2003;147
2. National Health and Medical Research Council, the Australian Immunization Handbook,
9th Edn. Canberra: NHMRC, 2008
3. Moy, RL, Lee A, Zalka A. Commonly used suturing techniques in skin surgery. American
Family Physician 1991; 44:1625-1634.
4. Dire DJ, Welch AP. A comparison of wound irrigation solution used in the Emergency
Department. Annals of Emergency Medicine 1996; 19: 704.
5. Bansal BC, Weike PA, Perkins SD, Abramo TJ. Tap water irrigation of lacerations.
American Journal of Emergency Medicine 2002; 20: 469.
6. Ellis H. Hazards from surgical gloves. Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England
2007; 79:161-163
7. Howell JM, Morgan JA,. Scalp lacerations repair without prior hair removal. American
Journal of Emergency Medicine 1988; 6:7.
8. McGhee DL. Anesthetic and analgesic techniques. Roberts and Hedges, Clinical
Procedures in Emergency Medicine. 5th edn. 2010: 490-491
9. McClean NR, Fyfe AH, Flint EF, et al. Comparison of skin closure using continuous and
interrupted nylon sutures. British Journal of Sugery. 1999; 67: 633-635
10. Jorgensen LN, Kallenhave F, Chrsitensen E, Siana JE, Less Collagen production in
smokers. Surgery 1998; 123:450-455.