Transcript Gender Inequalities

GENDER INEQUALITIES
G674
DO MEN OR WOMEN FACE MORE
DISADVANTAGE IN THE CONTEMPORARY
UK? (COPY & COMPLETE – PAIRS)
Female
Advantage
Home Life
Workplace
Health
Media
Representation
Crime
Education
Political Life
Male
Advantage
No difference
KEY POINT
Gender is considered the main site of social
inequality in the contemporary UK.
Discuss: Do you agree? Is gender more divisive
than ethnicity, age or class?
HOME
 The
role of homemaker is still most
associated with women.
 P/T
and flexible working arrangements
compliment this role – the dual role.
 Men
increasingly have a bigger domestic role;
there are almost as many male carers as
female (Carers UK; 2007)
 Using
time diaries, Seager (1997) found
women spend more time on domestic tasks
and men on paid work.
POLITICS

Following the 2010 General Election, only 146
out of 650 MPs were female.
Why are there so few female MPs?
List as many possible reasons as you can:
Which are the most likely?
HEALTH (SEE NEXT SLIDE ALSO!)
Men
Women
Life
Expectancy
76.6
81
Healthy life
expectancy
67.9
70.3
Years spent
in ill health
8.7
10.7
HEALTH: DISCUSS (PAIRS)

What does the table show?

What are some potential problems with the data?

What explanations might there be for the data?
MASS MEDIA

Ratio of men to women on television has barely
changed in the last ten years.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hZkC_fNxmQk
In Movies, TV shows, literature etc:
 The Bechdel Test, sometimes called the Mo Movie
Measure or Bechdel Rule is a simple test which names
the following three criteria: (1) it has to have at least
two women in it, who (2) who talk to each other,
about (3) something besides a man.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bLF6sAAMb4s
ACTIVITY (GROUPS – 5 MINS THEN
FEEDBACK)

Study the two tables on the handout and answer
the two questions provided.
EMPLOYMENT: DISCUSS – RECORD AND
JUSTIFY YOUR RESPONSES



Do any jobs specifically require a man rather
than a woman? If so, why?
Should a woman have the right to 18 weeks’
maternity leave, regardless of the impact it might
have on her workplace? How has the rules
regarding maternity leave changed?
What are your views on ‘positive
discrimination’ to get more men or women into
jobs where they are under-represented (e.g. could
this work with female MPs?).
EMPLOYMENT
Do women remain discriminated against in
the UK workplace?



80% of men and 70% of women are employed
(2005), compared to 92% men and 56% women in
1971.
42% of women work part-time vs. 10% of men.
Women only get 82% of the average male wage
(up from 63% in 1971).
EMPLOYMENT



Men are more likely than women to work full
time and be self-employed.
Regardless of their status as fathers, men tend to
work longer hours than women (Dermott; 2006)
Women working full time are less likely than
men to achieve authority positions (e.g. underrepresentation of female directors in FTSE 100).
EMPLOYMENT
Horizontal Segregation
 Meaning: Men and women have different types of
jobs.
 Women more likely to be in secretarial work,
primary school teachers, working in hotels and
restaurants.
 Men dominate construction, manufacturing and
transport.
EMPLOYMENT
Vertical Segregation
 Meaning: Men predominate in high-paid jobs and
women in low-paid jobs.


In 2005, 83% of directors and CEOs were men.
74% of waiting staff were women.
The glass ceiling concept: Women can reach
certain positions, but find it hard to get up to the
top jobs.
IN PAIRS
Discuss and Identify:
What barriers do you think prevent
women from reaching the top
positions in the workplace?
(Minimum of 4 reasons per pair)
EMPLOYMENT - GENDERQUAKE
Equal Pay Act (1970) – women should be paid the
same as men for the same work.
Sex Discrimination Act (1975) – discrimination
on the grounds of sex is illegal in all employment,
education etc.
Equality Act (2006) – all public bodies must act to
remove all illegal discrimination against women.
MEN AT WORK


Mac an Ghaill (1996) argued that the rise of the
service sector and female employment within it
was leading to a crisis of masculinity.
Willott & Griffin (1996) explored this idea
further and concluded that masculinity as a
whole was not in ‘crisis’ – although some
traditional elements of masculinity were
weakening.
EDUCATION
 Females
outperform males in SATs, KSs,
GCSEs, A Levels, diplomas and degrees.
 Maths, physics and IT remain male
dominated; English, modern languages
and Biology are female dominated.
 Truancy rates are significantly higher for
males.
 Some studies have found that girls receive
less attention than boys in the classroom.
DISCUSS


What reasons can you identify that explain why
girls do so much better than boys in education...
...Do you even agree it is true?
EDUCATION
Explanation: Why do girls do better at school?
 Cultural change in girls’ attitudes (Sharpe; 1994)
 Opening career opportunities for women (due to
equality legislation) / growth of the service sector.
 Feminist campaigns for women’s rights and to
raise women’s self-esteem (Mitsos & Browne;
1998)
 Bedroom culture encourages verbal skills.
 Schools no longer patriarchal institutions.
EDUCATION
Explanation: Why do boys do so badly?
 They’re not: It’s a moral panic....
 ...But also, employment opportunities have
decreased.
 Threat of losing traditional identities leads boys
to adopt a laddish attitude (Jackson; 2006)
 More at risk from negative consequences of
single-parenthood
 More likely to be socialised into activities that
require limited verbal skills
DISCUSS (PAIRS)

If women do better in education than men, why is
their position in the workplace not improving at
the same rate?
Sexism in
the
workplace
Relationship
between
Education &
Employment
CRIME

What studies/evidence did we look at in the
previous unit that might suggest Gender
inequalities in relation to Crime & Deviance?
WATCH

Clickview: Sociology: Women at Work
RESEARCH ACTIVITY


Find a minimum of 3 contemporary examples
of gender inequality or disadvantage in one of the
areas we have covered.
You will present your findings to the class.
SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS
FOR GENDER INEQUALITIES
G674
1. FUNCTIONALISM
PARSONS (1955)
Men and women serve different social roles;
women play an expressive role (caring,
emotional) and men an instrumental role (the
need to achieve and do stuff).
 Men are therefore more suited to working and
women for domesticity.
 These differences are innate.

In pairs, decide on three
arguments for and three
against this view.
ACTIVITY: HUMAN CAPITAL
In Pairs:
 List a minimum of five things that make an
employee valuable to his/her employer.
Ext: - How might the employee gain these qualities?
HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY



Women are less valuable to employers as they
are less committed to work and more likely to
take childcare breaks.
Men therefore have more ‘human capital’; their
careers are unbroken and they can continually
build up their skills, experiences etc.
Any pay-gap between men and women is
therefore justified.
CRITICISMS OF HUMAN CAPITAL
THEORY
Olsen & Walby (2004)


Women face systematic disadvantage is acquiring
human capital because...
...Jobs in which women are concentrated receive
less training opportunities and fewer promotion
prospects.
CRITICISMS OF FUNCTIONALISM



Most sociologists argue that gender roles are
socially constructed, not biologically ascribed.
Parsons writes from the POV of a male academic
in the 1950s.
Human capital theory does not explain pay-gaps,
as gender continues to influence pay regardless of
qualifications, experience etc. (Sloane; 1994)
2. MARXISM
Karl Marx himself wrote very little about gender,
but some of his theories (and the work of other
Marxists) can be applied to this issue...
THE RESERVE ARMY OF LABOUR



A reserve army of labour is a section of the
workforce that can be easily hired and fired...
...When the economy needs them (e.g. In
prosperous times, or times of expansion or
desperation) they are employed...
...But quickly disposed of when recession kicks in.
THE RESERVE ARMY OF LABOUR
Some sociologists argue that women are a
classic example of this idea because:
They change jobs more often than men, so are
more vulnerable to redundancies
 They are less likely to be unionised
(Beechey;1976) are more likely to accept lower
paid, less skilled jobs.
 Capitalist ideology locates the woman at home,
with fewer rights than men.

THE RESERVE ARMY OF LABOUR:
CRITICISMS


Outdated: Relatively few occupations are
unionised these days...
...Women are increasingly the main earners in
dual-income households...
ENGELS (1972)

Women were given a subordinate position
in society because men needed them to produce
and raise heirs so that property could be passed
on...
(However, this explanation is pure theory
and doesn’t explain why women do not
benefit from these inheritance laws.)
3. WEBERIANISM
Note: The concepts of Horizontal and Vertical
segregation are often attributed to the Weberian
perspective.
DUAL LABOUR MARKET THEORY
(BARRON & NORRIS; 1976)
The labour market is split in two:
1.
The Primary Labour Market
Secure, well-paid jobs with good prospects
2.
The Secondary Labour Market
Insecure, poorly-paid jobs with few promotion
opportunities
Women are more likely to be in the secondary
labour market because...
MYTHS AND STEREOTYPES ABOUT THE
UNSUITABILITY OF WOMEN FOR PRIMARY
SECTOR JOBS (ZIMMERMAN; 1991)

Workers don’t like working for female managers

Women are less dependable



Women are financially dependent on men (so
don’t need pay rises or promotions)
Women will stop work to have children (so no
point training them)
Working mothers cause damage to their children
(so don’t employ them for the sake of their kids!)
EVALUATION (BRADLEY; 1996)


Fails to explain inequalities within a single
sector.
For example, teaching is a primary labour
market occupation, yet women are less likely
than men to gain high status teaching jobs e.g.
70% of teachers are female, but only 35% of senior
jobs in education are held by women.
FEMINISM
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q89xx2R3iIw
FEMINISM


What is meant by first wave feminism and
second wave feminism.
Explain:
Liberal feminism
Marxist feminism
Radical feminism
Black feminism
SOME GENERAL FEMINIST
EXPLANATIONS
 Male
trade unionists restrict women’s
opportunities.
 Sexual harassment is used at work to
keep women in their place (Stanko; 1988)
 Jobs like bar work and secretarial work
are sexualised; not taken seriously.
 Sexual work (e.g. looking good,
tolerating sexual innuendo, flirtatious
banter) has become integral to many
women’s jobs (Adler; 1995)
AS RECAP!

How would Anne Oakley’s views on the social
construction of gender contribute to arguments
about gender inequality?
LIBERAL FEMINISM



Gender inequality today exists because it has
been historically unchallenged (Friedan; 1963)
The main reason for inequality is the dominance
of the mother/housewife role (Oakley; 1974)
Liberal Feminists tend to be positive about the
future potential for equality and support
positive discrimination.
MARXIST FEMINISM


An example of a dual-systems theory, as it
requires two areas of thought (patriarchy and
economics) to explain gender inequality.
Hartmann (1981) describes it as an ‘unhappy
marriage’, because these two areas can be
difficult to fit together into a single theory.
MARXIST FEMINISM
Most Marxist Feminists would agree with
what we have already discussed regarding
the reserve army of labour.

Some, like Benston (1972) argue that women
have been used to benefit the development and
continuation of capitalism, in various ways...
HOW WOMEN ARE USED FOR CAPITALISM’S
BENEFIT: ACTIVITY (PAIRS)
For each, identify a way to solve the problem and a potential problem with
trying to solve the problem...
Women assist
capitalism by...
Possible solutions
Potential problems
Providing free
housework
Pay women for carrying
out housework
How much to pay?
Where does the money
come from?
Providing free childcare
Promoting the ideology
of the nuclear family
Beautifying themselves
Working for lower
wages than men
Provides emotional
support to (male)
workers
RADICAL FEMINISM


Society is patriarchal: Women are controlled by
men in both personal and public spheres.
The source of patriarchy is biological e.g.
women’s ability to give birth (Firestone; 1971).
RADICAL FEMINISM
 Many
radical feminists disagree with the
biological argument; there are many
disagreements regarding the source of
patriarchy.
 According to Walby (1990), patriarchy is
socially/culturally variable. Men will
always try to oppress women, but they
cannot always succeed in this in the same
ways.
RADICAL FEMINIST ‘SLOGANS’:
What do they mean:
All feminists are lesbians
All men are rapists
Marriage makes women sick
PREFERENCE THEORY
Hakim (2004) – ‘Inequality is down to
personal preference’.



Adaptive Women; combine paid work/family
equally. Seek flexible, p/t work.
Work-Centred Women; focus on career and fit
family life around it.
Home-Centred Women; prefer not to work.
WRITTEN ACTIVITY
Outline and evaluate the view that the
patriarchal nature of contemporary British
society is the cause of gender inequality in
the UK [40]