Transcript Ch. 1 S. 2

Sociology: Then and Now
Obj: describe how the field of sociology
developed; explain how the three main
theoretical perspectives in sociology
differ in their focus.
The nature of social life
and human
interaction has been
of interest to scholars
throughout history.
However, a separate
academic discipline
dedicated to the
analysis of society –
sociology - did not
develop until the
1800s.
Several factors led to the development of
sociology as a distinct field of study. The
rapid social and political changes that took
place in Europe as a result of the Industrial
Revolution were of primary importance.
The factory replaced the home as the main
site for manufacturing. With the growth of
factories came the growth of cities as
people left their homes in the countryside
in search of work.
The rapid growth of urban populations
produced a multitude of social problems.
The number of people seeking work
outpaced available jobs. Housing shortages
developed, crime increased, and pollution
became a major problem. In addition, many
people found it difficult to adapt to the
impersonal nature of cities. Urban life was
different from life in the small rural
communities where most people were
raised. Interactions in the country were
based on personal relationships.
Over time, it became more difficult to ignore
the effect of society on the individual.
Individual liberty and individual rights
became the focus of a wide variety of
political movements. These demands for
freedom and rights gave rise to the
American and French Revolutions.
These sweeping political, social, and
economics changes caused some
scholars to question the traditional
explanations of life.
The Early Years
Sociology took root in
the 1800s, primarily in
France, Germany,
and England. These
countries had most
strongly felt the
effects of the
Industrial Revolution.
Auguste Comte
Many people consider
French philosopher
Comte (1798-1857) the
founder of sociology as a
distinct subject. He was
one of the first scholars to
apply the methods of the
physical sciences to the
study of social life. He
also coined the term
sociology to describe the
study of society.
Like most French scholars of his day, Comte was
intrigued by the causes and consequences of
the French Revolution. As a result, Comte began
to focus on two basic areas of study – social
order and social change. He suggested that
certain processes, which he called social statics,
hold society together. Similarly, Comte argued
that society changes through definite processes,
which he called social dynamics. The basic
principles of these two social forces, Comte
believed, could be uncovered through the
methods of scientific research. He hoped this
knowledge could be used to reform society.
Herbert Spencer
(1820-1903), an English
contemporary of
Comte. He was
strongly influenced by
the views of Charles
Darwin, an evolutionist
from the 1800s.
Spencer adopted a
biological model of
society.
In a living organism, the biological systems
work together to maintain the organism’s
health. Spencer attributed a similar process
to society. Society, he said, is a set of
interdependent parts that work together to
maintain the system over time.
Spencer also used Darwin’s theory of the
evolution of biological organisms to
describe the nature of society. Spencer
considered social change and unrest to be
natural occurrences during a society’s
evolution toward stability and perfection.
Because he believed that the best aspects of
society would survive over time, Spencer
thought that no steps should be taken to
correct social ills. Spencer also believed that
only the fittest societies would survive over
time, leading to a general upgrading of the
world as a whole. Although the phrase
“survival of the fittest” is often credited to
Darwin, it was coined by Spencer to describe
this process. Because of its similarities to
Darwin’s ideas, Spencer’s view of society
became known as social Darwinism.
Spencer’s ideas gained a wide following,
particularly in Britain and France.
However, like Comte, Spencer refused to
read the writings of scholars whose ideas
differed from his own. As a result, he
disregarded the rules of careful
scholarship and made scientifically
unfounded claims about the workings of
the world. Over time, Spencer’s social
Darwinism fell out of favor.
Karl Marx
(1818-83) Marx believed that the structure of
a society is influenced by how its economy
is organized. According to Marx, society is
divided into two classes - the bourgeoisie,
or capitalists, and the proletariat, or
workers. The bourgeoisie own the means
of production – the materials and methods
used to produce goods and services. The
proletariat, on the other hand, own
nothing. The provide the labor needed to
produce goods and provide services.
Marx believed this imbalance in power would
inevitably lead to conflict between the
capitalists and the workers. This class
conflict would end only when the proletariat
united to overthrow those in power. After
this rebellion, Marx said, the victorious
workers would build a classless society in
which each citizen would contribute
“according to his ability” and would be
rewarded “according to his needs.”
Marx did not really consider himself a
sociologist. Nevertheless, his belief that a
society’s economic system strongly
influences its social structure has had a
lasting influence on sociology. His
emphases on conflict as the primary cause
of social change led to the development of
one of the major sociological perspectives
– conflict theory.
Emile Durkheim
(1858-1917) he
developed the
country’s first
university sociology
course. Durkheim was
particularly interested
in the function of
religion in maintaining
social order, because
he believed that
shared beliefs and
values were the glue
that held society
together.
The basis of his scientific analysis of society
was his belief that sociologists should only
study features of society that are directly
observable.
Ideas about observable phenomena,
Durkheim noted, can be tested by applying
the scientific tool of statistical analysis.
He used this approach in his 1897 study,
Suicide. This study examined suicide rates
in several European countries. The first true
sociological study, Suicide is still used by
sociology professors and students today.
Max Weber
(1864-1920) Unlike
Comte, Spencer,
Marx, and Durkheim,
Weber was interested
in separate groups
within society rather
than in society as a
whole. This emphasis
on groups led Weber
to focus more on the
effect of society on
the individual.
Weber also thought that sociologists should go
beyond studying what can be directly
observed and attempt to uncover the
feelings and thoughts of individuals.
Weber proposed doing this by using the
principle of Verstehen. Verstehen involves
an attempt to understand the meanings
individuals attach to their actions. In
essence, with Verstehen one puts oneself in
the place of others and tries to see situations
through their eyes.
In addition to Verstehen, Weber employed the
concept of ideal type in much of his work.
An ideal type is a description comprised of
the essential characteristics of a feature of
society.
A feature of society might be public schools or
attitudes about work. Sociologists construct
an ideal type first by examining many
different examples of the feature and then
by deducing its essential characteristics.
Yet any particular example of the feature
might not contain all of the characteristics
described in the ideal type. For example,
the ideal type for a school might not be a
perfect representation of your school.
However, you would recognize it as a
general description of an educational
institution.
Current Perspectives
A theory is an explanation of
the relationships among
particular phenomena.
Sociologists develop
theories to guide their work
and help interpret their
findings. Sociologists not
only develop theories to
explain specific
phenomena, they also
adopt broad theoretical
perspectives to provide a
foundation for their
inquiries.
A theoretical perspective is a general set of
assumptions about the nature of things. In
the case of sociology, a theoretical
perspective outlines specific ideas about
the nature of social life.
Three broad theoretical perspectives form
the basis of modern sociology. Each one
presents a slightly different image of
society or focuses on different aspects of
social life.
Functionalist Perspective
The functionalist perspective is broadly based on
the ideas of Comte, Spencer, and Durkheim.
People who employ this perspective view society
as a set of interrelated parts that work together to
produce a stable social system. According to
functionalists, society is held together through
consensus. In other words, most people agree on
what is best for society and work together to
ensure that the social system runs smoothly.
Topics of interest to functionalist sociologists
include the functions that family or education
serve in society.
Like Durkheim, functionalists view the
various elements in society in terms of
their functions, or their positive
consequences for society. Recognizing
that not everything in society operates
smoothly, functionalists also label certain
elements as dysfunctional. A dysfunction is
the negative consequence an element has
for the stability of the social system.
Dysfunctional elements, such as crime,
disrupt society rather than stabilize it.
In addition to being either positive or
negative, functions can be either manifest
or latent. A manifest function is the
intended and recognized consequence of
some element of society. For example, a
manifest function of the automobile is to
provide speedy transportation from one
location to another. A latent function, on the
other hand, is the unintended and
unrecognized consequence of an element
of society. A latent function of the
automobile is to gain social standing
through the display of wealth.
Conflict Perspective
People who employ the conflict
perspective focus on the forces in society
that promote competition and change.
Following in the tradition of Karl Marx,
conflict theorists are interested in how
those who possess more power in society
exercise control over those with less
power. Conflict theorists do not limit their
attention to acts of violent conflict.
They are also interested in nonviolent
competition between various groups in
society – men and women, people of
different ages, or people of different racial
or national backgrounds. Some of the
topics that conflict sociologists research
include decision-making in the family,
relationships among racial groups, and
disputes between workers and employers.
According to conflict theorists, competition over
scarce resources is at the basis of social conflict.
Because resources such as power and wealth are
in limited supply, people must compete with one
another for them. Once particular groups gain
control of society’s resources, they tend to
establish rules and procedures that protect their
interests at the expense of other groups. This
leads to social conflict as those with less power
attempt to gain access to desired resources.
Conflict, in turn, leads to social change. Thus,
conflict theorists see social change as an inevitable
feature of society.
Interactionist Perspective
Functionalists and conflict theorists tend to
focus on society in general or on groups
within society. However, some sociologists
adopt an interactionist perspective, focus
on how individuals interact with one another
in society. These sociologists are interested
in the ways in which individuals respond to
one another in everyday situations. They are
also interested in the meanings that
individuals attach to their own actions and to
the actions of others. Interactionist theorists
are heavily indebted to the work of Max
Weber.
Interactionists are particularly interested in
the role that symbols play in our daily lives.
A symbol is anything that represents
something else. In order for something to
be a symbol, however, members of society
must agree on the meaning that is attached
to it. Such things as physical objects,
gestures, words, and events can serve as
symbols. The American flag, the bald
eagle, Fourth of July celebrations, and
Uncle Sam are examples of symbols used
to represent the US. In the case of gesture,
a salute is a sign of respect for authority.
Interactionists focus on how people use symbols
when interacting. This process is called symbolic
interaction. The interactionist perspective is used
to study topics such as child development,
relationships within groups, and mate selection.
This theoretical perspective has been particularly
influential in the US.
Which theoretical perspective should you use? Each
one poses different questions and provides
contrasting insights into the social world.
Combining the elements each has to offer will
provide you with a more complete understanding
of human behavior.