Transcript An Introduction to Sociology

An Introduction to The
Social Sciences
Academic Disciplines
• Academic disciplines are specific
branches of learning:
• Social Science Disciplines:
– Anthropology, psychology, sociology,
economics, political science
– Each discipline examines human behaviour
from a particular point of view - Theoretical
Perspective
Theory
• A theory is a “framework” for organizing facts
(observable evidence)
• Theories explain how and why something happens,
and predicts with great accuracy how things will
happen in the future
• Theories DO NOT determine what will happen, nor
do they imply what should or should not be
• Facts, lack meaning without some theory to explain
them.
• Example: Divorce rate is about 33.5%
• This is a fact, but the fact does not explain why couples get
divorced or how divorce affects society.
The Social Sciences
• Anthropology:
the science that studies the physical and cultural
development (values, beliefs, mores, institutions
etc…) of humanity.
“How and why did the family develop?”
• Psychology
the science that studies the mental processes and the
behaviour of persons.
It’s focus is on how people think and develop
“How did your childhood experiences affect your
attitudes towards school / relationships?”
Introduction to Sociology
• Define “society”
• Briefly explain ‘how’ society works
• Idenitify 3-5 ways in which your behaviour
is affected by your society.
What is Sociology?
• Sociology
• the study of the social world. It involves studying
human beings and their patterns of behaviour.
• Sociology focuses on the way people form
relationships and how these relationships,
considered in their totality are represented by the
concept of a "society".
Focus of Sociology
• The focus of the sociologist’s attention is
group behaviour.
• They study the effect that the groups
people either create / join or are born
into (family, work, education and peer
groups) have upon people’s behaviour.
Micro & Macro Perspective of
Sociology
 Mirco level: Sociology is about explaining
the different forces and influences that
shape how someone grows up
 Macro level:
Sociology is about
understanding why &
how society functions,
and why people
accept society’s
control (and why
some do not).
What is Society?
• Some people deny “society” exists at all → simply
individual men and women acting as individuals
• But → individuals DO appear to act in very
ORGANIZED ways
• The way society is organized affects the individual –
individuals are socially constructed
• Although we are Individuals, we are SOCIALLY
MADE
• The problem of Sociology → it threatens ordinary
understanding of how things work – commonsense ideas
that “everyone knows to be true”
Answer True of False to the following statements:
a. A woman walking alone at night is in greater danger of sexual assault or rape by a
stranger than a woman in a familiar place with a man she knows.
b. Men are naturally more aggressive than women.
c. "Falling in love" is a natural human emotion. Therefore, romantic love has existed in all
societies at all times.
d. By teaching children about sexual relationships, the education system encourages
young people to experiment sexually, leading to an increase in teenage pregnancies.
e. Someone living in Toronto is more likely to be the victim of crime than any other city in
Canada.
f. Crime rates are higher today than they were 30 years ago.
g. The high divorce rate in our society indicates that marriage as an institution is under
threat in our society.
h.1/2 of all marriages in Canada will end in divorce
• Sociology relies on evidence that can be tested and verified to develop explanations
about human behaviour
The Origins of Sociology
• John Locke (16321704)→ The mind at
birth is a “tabula rasa”
– a blank slate – our
social environment,
not our social class,
determines who we
will be
• Auguste Compte (1798-1857)
→ coined the term sociology –
use social facts to show how
social structures work
• Positivism – authentic
knowledge is only that which
can be derived from scientific
and mathematical data
• Like the physcial world society
operate according to
measurable and verifiable laws
– understand these laws and
you can make a better society
Emile Durkheim
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Society functions to protect the interests of its
members
Functional differentiation – society
divides itself into groups to cope with the
complex tasks that allow it to function
successfully.
Fascinated by suicide – why did it happen?
Discovered that Catholics committed suicide
far less frequently than protestants – there
must be social forces at work
Suicide → must look beyond individual act to
see the moral pressures at work → see social
patterns or forces - culture
Identified “social facts” – concepts and
expectations that come from one’s social
community and affect individual behaviour
–
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Although we accept these ‘norms’ and ‘values’,
we are constrained by them as well
Conclusion – society is a system of hidden
forces (institutions, roles, norms and culture)
that influence individual behaviour.
Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)
• Developed one of the first theories to
explain how and why society works.
• All successful (functional) societies must
solve 4 basic problems:
– Economic
– Political
– Cultural
– Family
• Society invents social structures to solve
each problem – structural functionalism
Economic
PROBLEM
All successful societies
must produce and
distribute the things that
are needed for human
survival
SOLUTION
• Society has to develop a
division of labour –
organizing people into work
related roles
• Economic organization affects
social values
– Industrial capitalism – individuals
must be free to work – liberty,
equality become social values
Political
PROBLEM
• All successful
societies are orderly
and stable
SOLUTION
• Society must develop
ways of governing
and controlling
people's behaviour.
• Our society - this is
achieved by
government (lawmaking), the police,
the courts and so
forth.
Cultural
PROBLEM
SOLUTION
• Social institutions and
• All successful
agents of socialization
societies must make
develop values and
people feel they have
norms that people feel
things in common
they have in common.
with other people - to • Cultural institutions that
make people feel that
attempt to perform this
they belong to a
function include
education, the mass
society and common
media, and religion
culture.
FAMILY
PROBLEM
• All successful societies
must ensure that children
are born (physical
reproduction), nurtured
and socialized in a way
that allows them to grow
into functioning adult
members of society
(social reproduction).
SOLUTION
• The FAMILY
• Primary institution and
agent of socialization – it
prepares us for
participation in all other
social groups
• It ensures that children
learn language, and the
cultural roles and
expectations of their
society.
Structural Functionalism
• Society functions because it has structure:
– Institutions: organizations that meet the needs of society
– Roles: social-status positions that are important for society to be
successful
– Norms: accepted behaviours for a given role
• All social structures (institutions & agents of socialization) have a
purpose (function)  fulfill the needs of society
• Each necessary social function is institutionalized  individuals
are socialized to assume roles and act according to norms
– Example: When I perform my duties as a husband, a wife,
teacher, or a citizen, and carry out the commitments I have
entered into, I fulfill obligations which are defined in law and
custom and which are external to myself
Basic Assumptions of S-F
• Macro View of Society  focus on how largescale structures affect individual behaviour
• Consensus: Stability and Order is achieved
through shared norms and values social
norms and values reflect the majority of society
• Change is evolutionary  norms and values
change slowly & in an orderly way
• Equilibrium  The goal of all societies is to be
stable (equilibrium)  if one part changes all
other parts must adjust
Structural Functionalism
Explanation of family
• Family  primary
institution
– We learn the values and
norms of our society –
microcosm (mini version) of
society
•
Family prepares us to
function in all other
institutions
Explanation of Individual
• We are socialized to
accept roles and behave
according to norms
• We are socialized by
social institutions
(education & government)
and agents of
socialization (friends &
media)
Conflict Theory
• Karl Marx  power & wealth not equally
distributed in society: some social groups
dominate others
• How does society function? Not through social
consensus BUT social dominance & force!
– Social order is maintained either by FORCE
or SELF-OPPRESSION
Basic idea of Conflict Theory
• Question: How do the few manage to get the many to do most of
the work?
• Answer: ideology (ideas and beliefs about how the world works)
• The “commonsense” views of the world are shaped by the ideology
(viewpoint) of the dominant groups
• Others adopt this viewpoint, even when it is not in their interest to do
so  false consciousness
• False Consciousness – when we accept the values of the
dominant class
• How? Through media (owned by dominant class), and other
social institutions (government, education, etc…)
• Thus, social values are not the values of the many, but the values of
the fortunate few
Conflict Theory Explanation
Institutions
• Religion – the “opiate” (drug) of the masses
– Teaches the common person to be subserviant – reward is in
heaven
• Political ideology Family –
– Family represents society’s class division
 men’s work is primarily outside the home and paid a wage.
Women’s work is primarily within the home & not paid –
therefore not valued
– Men of all classes wield economic power within the
household
– Family  oppressive institution that serves the interest of
men above women and children
– Family teaches us to accept inequality
Conflict Theory
Family
– Family represents society’s class
division:
 men’s work is
primarily outside the home and paid
a wage.
– Women’s work is primarily within
the home & not paid – therefore
not valued
– Men of all classes wield
economic power within the
household
– Family  oppressive institution
that serves the interest of men
above women and children
– Family teaches us to accept
inequality
Individual
• We are socialized to
accept the values of the
dominant class
• Religion – the “opiate”
(drug) of the masses
– Teaches the common
person to be subserviant –
reward is in heaven
• Political ideology
– Free-market capitalism
works for all equally
Symbolic Interactionism
“I am not who I think I am
I am not who you think I am
I am what I think you think I am”
Who am I?
What does this mean?
Symbolic Interactionism
• A psychological theory
• Explains how we derive meaning from our
experiences
• Action depends on meaning – we act based on the
meaning we’ve given something
• We give meaning to something based on our social
interactions – different meanings for different people
• Meanings can change over time
• Micro Theory  people develop and define their
individual & group identity through interactions with
others- mutually working out what things mean
• In a “macro” way it explains how we develop our
culture – what it means to be Canadian, Jamaican,
Chinese etc…
Three aspects of theory:
1. Symbols/ language tangible (real)
representation of an idea – we share our
meaning of things through symbols &
language
– Language is symbolic  the word ‘love’ is a sound
symbol for the idea that we are emotionally
attached to one another
2. Meaning – how we interpret the actions of
others and thing
» is your idea of love the same as mine? How can I
know this?
3. Thought – how we interpret symbols – though
internal dialogue with ourselves we
“construct” meaning
• We develop a sense of self through our
interaction with others, both individually and in
groups
• Actions of others can be confusing  we cannot
see the mental processes behind their actions we are constantly interpreting what someone
else “means” by what they say and do
• We must take the perspective of the other in
order to try to figure this out
Symbolic Interactionism
Family
• Teaches us how to
interpret the symbols of
our society (language)
• Begins the process of
defining who we are as
individuals
Individual
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 We learn about ourselves
first through our
interactions with our family
• Family instills in us
societal values
•
The development of the individual is a social
process
As we develop we learn to use the symbols
(language & visual icons) of our immediate
group, give them the same meaning and
share them with others
S. I. also explains how we acquire our
identities – from others
– “Me” – my objective qualities (tall,
short, male, female, white, black,
brown)
– “I” – subjective qualities – our
awareness of self & the meaning of the
objective qualities
– Society determines what it means to be
a boy, girl, short or tall, white or black
We are what we think others think we are
Feminist Theory
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Examines the role sex and
gender have on behaviour
Specifically takes the
perspective of women (virtually
all sociologists were male)
Reaction to gender bias in
society
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Androcentricity – the bias that
assumes that male behaviour
is human behaviour
Like conflict theory, Feminist
theory sees inequalities in
power as a result of social
structures that have been
constructed by men, and
therefore benefit men
What social structures need to
change to allow for women to
more equally participate in
society?
Systems Theory
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System – a series of interrelated parts
Change in one part = change in
the entire system
Systems strive for balance /
equalibrium
Feedback – the process of
interacting so as to maintain the
stability of the system
Society is a system of
institutions – change in one
(family) = change in other
institutions (education,
government etc…)
Family is a system of roles
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The success of each role
depends on the others in the
system
Individual – must learn the
patterns and strategies for
interacting with others
Social Exchange
Theory
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Cost-benefit theory of human
behaviour
We act to maximize our benefits
and minimize our costs
Benefits = perceived rewards
Costs = the things we give up in
order to secure a reward
Costs & Benefits are often
matters of perception – very
personal
Benefits can be social (status)
as well as material ($$)
Costs are also matters of
perception – not everyone will
consider costs equally
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Symbolic interactionism
applies here to explain the
meaning of “cost” and “benefit”
Benefits must be perceived to
be equal to, or outweigh, the
costs for relationships to be
stable