Transcript Chapter 1

Chapter 1
An Invitation to Sociology
Chapter 1, Lesson 1
The Sociological Perspective
sociology
Sociology is the science of people’s behavior and how they interact
with one another within relationships.
It emerged in the late 19th-century with the works of scientists such
as Emile Durkheim, Max Weber and August Comte.
It developed into a scientific endeavor that used observation,
interviews, statistical analysis, experimentation and other methods
to study groups of people, social structures and social change.
social structure
Social structure is the patterned way in which people interact with
one another, the relationships that govern that behavior.
As a group, a classroom of students do certain things that is
common throughout most classrooms around the world. As a
group, teachers will conduct themselves and interact with the
students in a way that is generally found throughout the world.
While students might approach their studies and teachers might do
their job in a variety of ways, the taking of notes, the taking of tests
(for the teacher, the giving of notes and the giving of tests) are part
of a group behavior upon which sociologists focus. In short, the
behavior of a group cannot be determined by the characteristics of
the individuals within the group.
perspective
Perspective is one’s point of view.
One’s perspective is not typically shared by others. Your child is
better looking than another person might believe, certainly share
out loud.
Typically, when we are confronted by something that challenges
our perspective, that can be a tough experience because it is
challenging how we see and interpret things.
Important days don’t look like anything special when they start. Invariably, the sun rises and people wake up. Coffee
is swilled and eggs are swallowed. Everybody goes about the business of acting like their lives matter and then, no
matter how important the events of the day end up being, the sun invariably sets. The sun rose before the soldiers
stormed Omaha Beach on D-Day, and the sun set after Archduke Franz Ferdinand was killed. Sunrises and sunsets
are real jerks about putting things in perspective.
Josh Lieb, I Am a Genius of Unspeakable Evil and I Want to be Your Class President, 2009
sociological perspective
Sociological perspective is a way in which the behavior of groups, as
opposed to people, is determined.
The individual and their actions are typically the purview of
psychologists while the sociologist focuses on the actions of the
group. A sociologist might study an individual but only to gain a
greater understanding of the group.
social sciences
The social sciences are a collection of sciences that revolves
around human society. While they differ in some ways, there are
overlapping components that bind the various sub-sciences.
Along with sociology, these sciences include:
Anthropology – examines past cultures, typically focusing
on un-developed cultures
Psychology – examines mental and emotional states,
focusing on the individual rather than the group
Economics – examines the economic choices people make
Political science – examines government and how people
interact with government
History – examines past events of human societies
sociological imagination
Pioneered by American sociologist C. Wright Mills, sociological
imagination refers to the ability of individuals to observe the
relationship between events in their personal life and events that
occur within society.
This is most typified by the social pressures that can influence the
actions of an individual. Yet, understanding the bigger picture can
also allow individuals to question common interpretations or
conventional wisdom.
Chapter 1, Lesson 2
The Origins of Sociology
Auguste Comte
Biography: Born 19 January 1798 in Montpellier, France
Died 5 September 1857 in Paris, France
Seminal works: Course of Positive Philosophy (1830-42)
The Positive Political System (1851-4)
Influential ideas: Considered the father of sociology, Comte set out to
create a way that society could be studied and that results from the research
and observation could be “sure” or “positive.” He also sought to define that
which could be derived from social stability (social statics) and that which
creates social change (social dynamics).
A general statement of any system of philosophy may be either a sketch of a doctrine to be established, or a summary of a
doctrine already established. If greater value belongs to the last, the first is still important, as characterizing from its origin
the subject to be treated. In a case like the present, where the proposed study is vast and hitherto indeterminate, it is especially
important that the field of research should be marked out with all possible accuracy. . . .
Auguste Comte, Course of Positive Philosophy, 1830
positivism
Positivism, first proposed by French sociologist Auguste Comte,
was the belief that sociological knowledge should be achieved
through scientific observation in order that the knowledge would
be verified or positive.
social statics
Social statics, as proposed by French sociologist Auguste Comte,
is the study of social stability and order.
In short, these are the things within a particular society that does
not change over the years. In the United States, this might include
the belief in hard work and personal initiative, a belief in a
democratic form of government or a belief in a higher power.
While this is not indicative of every American now or in the past,
the ideals have been dearly held throughout the country’s history.
social dynamics
Social dynamics, as proposed by French sociologist Auguste Comte,
is the study of social change.
In short, these are the things within a particular society that are
subject to change and often do from one generation to another. In
the United States, this might include things such as morals, fashion
or forms of entertainment. What makes up these ideas are fluid
and have changed often throughout the history of this country.
Harriet Martineau
Biography: Born 12 June 1802 in Norwich, Norfolk, England
Died 27 June 1876 in Ambleside, Westmoreland, England
Seminal works: The History of the Thirty Years’ Peace
The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte Deerbrook
Influential ideas: Martineau’s talent spanned history, economics,
literature and sociology. Her greatest sociological contribution was
the translation of Comte’s work into English. Furthermore, she was
one of the first to connect the institution of slavery with the treatment
of women during her time.
If a test of civilization be sought, none can be so sure as the condition of that half of society over which the other half has
power.
Harriet Martineau
Herbert Spencer
Biography: Born 27 April 1820 in Derby, Derbyshire, England
Died 8 December 1903 in Brighton, Sussex, England
Seminal works: System of Synthetic Philosophy (1855-96)
Influential ideas: An inventor as well as writer, Spencer compared
society to the human body, suggesting that the different parts of
society work towards, ideally, a greater good. He is best known for his
idea of Social Darwinism, suggesting that if society is left alone and not
“reformed,” it will correct itself as nature tends to do. Those things
that should remain will; things that should die off will.
Man needed one more constitution to fit him for his original state; he needs another to fit him for his present state; and he has
been, is, and will long continue to be, in process of adaption…Progress, therefore, is not an accident, but a necessity.
Herbert Spencer, Social Statics (1851)
Karl Marx
Biography: Born 5 May 1818 in Trier, Prussia (Germany)
Died 14 March 1883 in London, England
Seminal works: The Communist Manifesto (1848)
The Capital (1867-94)
Influential ideas: The German philosopher will go down in history
primarily for his works regarding communism. He felt the current
economic trends, namely capitalism, would ultimately lead to social
disorder and chaos as the working class (proletariat) would rise up
against the owners (bourgeoisie).
The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.
Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto, (1848)
bourgeoisie
German philosopher Karl Marx defined the bourgeoisie as those
who owned the factors of production (land, labor, capital and
entrepreneurship). Those who owned these factors were referred to
by Marx as capitalists, a group of self-interested money men who
gave their workers, known as the proletariat, only enough salary to
survive.
capitalist
A capitalist, as defined by German philosopher Karl Marx, is one
who owns the factors of production or capital. In laymen’s terms,
these are the business and company owners who control the means
to become wealthy.
proletariat
According to German philosopher Karl Marx, the proletariat were
those of the working class who toil for the bourgeoisie and earn
very little of the profit of the goods they make.
class conflict
As proposed by German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels, class conflict was the natural conclusion of the disparity
between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
The only way to prevent the class warfare that a capitalist system
can create was to move towards a classless society, a communist
society where no one owns the land and that profit is shared
equally among all those who work.
Marx went further to explain that planned revolution could speed
up the change from capitalism to communism (he used the term
socialism).
Émile Durkheim
Biography: Born 15 April 1858 in Épinal, France
Died 15 November 1917 in Paris, France
Seminal works: The Division of Labor in Society (1893)
Suicide (1897)
Influential ideas: Durkheim spent his life persuading people to take
sociology seriously, refining early ideas. He felt society was the
product of societal consensus. Durkheim was also a leader in
formalizing the scientific approach of sociology in order to gain
respectability and prestige. He felt human social behavior was the
product of social factors rather psychological ones.
It is society which, fashioning us in its image, fills us with religious, political and more beliefs that control our actions.
Émile Durkheim, Suicide, 1897
mechanical solidarity
According to Émile Durkheim, mechanical solidarity was social
dependency based on a society-wide consensus of values and beliefs,
enforced conformity and dependency on family and tradition.
Many tradition-laden countries such as Japan and China often
display this type of mechanical solidarity. While conformity may be
antithetical to the western, individualistic person, to those in Japan
and China, anything done must consider the greater good – if not
regarding society, then family.
organic solidarity
As proposed by French sociologist Émile Durkheim, organic
solidarity is social interdependency based on high levels of
specialization of societal roles.
This organic solidarity is seen in the fact that the average person,
disinterested in and/or incapable of making bread, depend on the one
who wants to be a baker to obtain their bread.
Max Weber
Biography: Born 21 April 1864 in Erfurt, Prussia (Germany)
Died 14 June 1920 in Munich, Germany
Seminal works: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904-5)
Economy and Society (1922-5)
Influential ideas: Like many learned people of his age, Weber wrote on a
litany of things, including religion, social classes and bureaucracies.
Weber’s methods and theories probably have the greatest impact on
modern sociology. His ideas of getting into the minds of people and the
role of rationality in modern thinking irrevocably changed the science.
The fate of our times is characterized by rationalization and intellectualism and, above all, by the disenchantment of the
world.
Max Weber, Wissenschaft als Beruf, 1918
verstehen
Verstehen is the German verb “to understand.” From this word,
German sociologist Max Weber suggested that people make
decisions based on their own understanding of a situation.
Therefore, if a sociologist wants to know about people within a
group, they must place themselves within that person’s mindset.
rationalization
As proposed by German sociologist Max Weber, rationalization is a
mind-set that relies on knowledge, reason and planning – the result
of educational changes in the face of industrialization.
For example, prior to industrialization, farming was an endeavor
that seemed to depend on luck (or at least the farmer’s perception of
luck). Afterwards, the use of science to understand when things
grow and why changed the agricultural industry.
Jane Addams
Biography: Born 6 September 1860 in Cedarville, Illinois
Died 21 May 1935 in Chicago, Illinois
Seminal works: Twenty Years at Hull-House (1910)
The Long Road of Woman’s Memory (1916)
Influential ideas: While the author of several books, Jane Addams is best
known for her settlement houses, primarily in Chicago, that were
designed to provide services to lower-income and immigrant people,
particularly women. She devoted her life to helping the poor and
ultimately, won the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1931. She worked with
sociologists from the University of Chicago so that they may see the
impact of industrialization on the masses.
….life cannot be administered by definite rules and regulations; that wisdom to deal with a man’s difficulties comes only
through some knowledge of his life and habits as a whole…
Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House (1910)
W.E.B DuBois
Biography: Born 23 February 1868 in Great Barrington, Mass.
Died 27 August 1963 in Accra, Ghana
Seminal works: The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (1899)
The Souls of Black Folk (1903)
Influential ideas: The bulk of DuBois’ work centered on the racism
suffered by American blacks and the segregation that defined the
social world of the same. His personal experience, however, was
unique in that he went to an integrated high school in
Massachusetts and became the first black man to receive a degree
from Harvard University.
The theory of democratic government is not that the will of the people is always right, but rather that normal human
beings of average intelligence will, if given a chance, learn the right and best course by bitter experience.
W.E.B. Du Bois, The Negro, 1915
Robert Ezra Park
Biography: Born 14 February 1864 in Harveyville, Pennsylvania
Died 7 February 1944 in Nashville, Tennessee
Seminal works: Introduction to the Science of Sociology (1922)
Influential ideas: Park was most known for his work with Booker
T. Washington and his study on race relations. His focus was on
how societies grow and change. What determines whether a
society competes or cooperates. His hope for social reform was
always a part of his work.
The city is…a state of mind, a body of customs and traditions, and of the organized attitudes and sentiments that inhere
in these customs and are transmitted with this tradition….(The city) is involved in the vital processes of the people who
compose it; it is a produce of nature, and particularly of human nature.
Robert Ezra Park, The City, 1925
George Herbert Mead
Biography: Born 27 February 1863 in South Hadley, Massachusetts
Died 26 April 1931 in Chicago, Illinois
Seminal works: He wrote no books but his former students
compiled thousands of pages of his ideas, notes and lectures into
four volumes.
Influential ideas: Mead focused on the sense of self, how it develops
and its development as we interact with the world.
Communication and symbols were at the center and Mead’s work
is at the center of the symbolic interactionism perspective.
The mind is simply the interplay of…gestures in the form of significant symbols. We must remember that the gesture is
there only in its relationship to the response, to the attitude.
George Herbert Mead
Julian Samora
Biography: Born 1 March 1920 in Pagosa Springs, Colorado
Died 2 February 1996 in Albuquerque, New Mexico
Seminal works: A History of the Mexican-American People (1993)
La Raza: Forgotten Americans (1966)
Influential ideas: Samora’s work focused on the Mexican-American
experience in terms of civil rights and discrimination on multiple
levels.
Chapter 1, Lesson 3
Theoretical Perspectives
theoretical perspective
A theoretical perspective is a set of assumptions about a particular
thing, accepted as true.
Jane Addams often struggled against the assumptions that those
that were poor in the 19th-century was the product of their own
failings. A theoretical perspective can also color how we view
nationalities or the world around us.
There is a map that shows the northern and southern hemispheres
in reverse so that Australia, southern South America and Africa as
well as Antarctica are at the top of the map and North America,
Europe and Russia are located at the bottom. Each challenges
peoples’ theoretical perspective.
functionalism
Sociology operates under three general theoretical perspectives.
The first of these three is functionalism. Functionalism
emphasizes the contributions of each part of society.
Religion allows society to answer questions that are not easily
verifiable. Family serves to replenish societal members and
provides a safety net and caring network for those new members.
To a functionalist, few changes can alter the core roles that each
part of society fills. The student protestors of the 1960s and 1970s
are now a part of society they once rebuked.
functional integration
Functional integration suggests that there is an interdependence
between the various parts of society. Between all parts, if
operating and functioning correctly, society can be at its best. It is
the key concept within the theoretical perspective of
functionalism.
social institutions
Social institutions are the organized ways that a society meets its
basic needs. These can be institutions such as government,
education and the law. Those who support the functionalist theory
feel that this is the binding that brings society together. Those who
support the conflict theory feel this is the focal point of corruption
and abuse of power.
manifest functions
American sociologist Robert Merton suggested that there were two
types of functionalism – manifest and latent functions. Manifest
functions refer to intended and recognized consequences of an
aspect of society.
A manifest function of school is to learn, among other things,
history and math. The society has agreed that certain subjects,
ideas and concepts are important for students to know and
therefore, the education system has been created in the U.S. to
instill and enforce these concepts.
latent functions
American sociologist Robert Merton suggested that there were two
types of functionalism – manifest and latent functions. Latent
functions represent unintended and unrecognized consequences of
an aspect of society.
A latent function of school includes the development of close
friendships. When the first public schools were created in the U.S.
(Massachusetts, by the way), they were not thinking that this
would be a good way of making friends. It was simply an
unintended by-product of schools.
dysfunction
A result of functionalism may not always be a positive one.
Dysfunction refers to a negative consequence of an aspect of
society.
While the role of religion can provide comfort and a feeling of
belonging for many people, there are examples of people, upon
long-term exposure to a church, synagogue or mosque, walk away
from their religion or religion altogether. Additionally, government
bureaucracy was created to facilitate the interaction between
people and their government. However, bureaucracy is
characterized today as impersonal and rigid and ultimately, not
very responsive at all.
conflict perspective
Sociology operates under three general theoretical perspectives.
The second of these three is conflict perspective, which refers to an
approach that emphasizes the role of conflict, competition and
constraint on society.
While functionalism suggests that society craves stability or often
resets itself towards stability and predictability, the conflict
perspective suggests society engenders conflict, which brings about
change that includes constraint or coercion of certain members of
society.
power
An element of conflict perspective, power is the ability that one
person has to control the behavior of another.
The beginnings of the women’s movement was an attempt by the
powerless to exert influence on the powerful. As time has past,
women have gained greater power and access at the expense of
men. The follower of conflict perspective would suggest that the
change has created more power and influence for women.
symbolic interactionism
Sociology operates under three general theoretical perspectives.
The third of these three is symbolic interactionism, which is an
approach that focuses on the interactions of people based on
mutually understood symbols.
According to American sociologist Herbert Blumer, there are three
stages to this approach: one, we learn the meaning of symbols,
second, we base our behavior on our understanding of symbols
and three, we predict how others will react to our behavior.
symbol
A symbol, as it is defined as a part of symbolic interactionism, is
anything that stands for something else to which everyone agrees.
A whistle might show appreciation in the United States but it also
shows displeasure in South America.
abstract
Regarding symbolic interactionism, abstract is the nature of the
true meaning behind visible symbols.
When a newcomer to the U.S. sees an American flag, they might see
it as important part of the country without seeing the more
abstract ideas behind it – freedom, liberty, democracy. Each
symbol that represents the country actually represents abstract
ideas that are at the core of the country’s founding and principles.
dramaturgy
Canadian sociologist Erving Goffman suggested that dramaturgy,
as a part of symbolic interactionism, is an approach that
highlights human interaction as theatrical performance or
pretending to be something someone is not.
A teacher who is low-key and reserved might take on the persona
of a loud and boisterous person to come across better in the
classroom. In order to be accepted by their peers, a teenager
might take on an appreciation of a certain style of dress or partake
in alcohol or tobacco.