Transcript THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS SOCIOLOGY

SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
CHAPTER 4
Social Structure
Section 1: Building Blocks of Social Structure
Section 2: Types of Social Interaction
Section 3: Types of Societies
Section 4: Groups Within Society
Section 5: The Structure of Formal Organizations
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 1: Building Blocks of Social Structure
Objectives:
 Identify and describe the two major
components of social structure.
 Analyze how these two components of social
structure affect human interaction.
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 1: Building Blocks of Social Structure
Major Components of Social Structure
 Status
 Role
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 1: Building Blocks of Social Structure
Roles, Status, and Human Interaction
 People’s particular roles and statuses affect
how they relate to one another.
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Key terms
 Social Structure – Network of interrelated statuses
and roles that guides human interactions.
 Status – Socially defined positions in a group in a
society.
 Role – Behavior – the rights and obligations –
expected of someone occupying a particular status.
 Ascribed Status – Status assigned according to
standards that are beyond a person’s control. Age,
sex, family history and race are examples.
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Key Terms
(continued)
 Achieved Status – Status acquired by an individual
on the basis of some special skill, knowledge, or
ability.
 Master Status – Status that plays the greatest role in
shaping a person’s life and determining his or her
social identity.
 Reciprocal Roles – Corresponding roles that define
the patterns of interactions between related statuses.
 Role Expectations – Socially determined behaviors
expected of a person performing a role.
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Key Terms
(continued)
 Role Performance – Actual behavior of a person
performing a role.
 Role Set – different roles attached to a single status.
 Role Conflict- Situation that occurs when fulfilling
the expectation of one role makes it difficult to fulfill
the expectations of another role.
 Role Strain – Situation that occurs when a person
has difficulty meeting the expectations of a single
role.
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Status
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Examples of
Roles
Examples of
Conflict / Strain
voluntarily puts self in
danger but has loved ones
who need him or her
fire
fighter
putting out fires, saving
lives, wearing a uniform
mother
providing food and shelter, work fatigue and long shifts
nurturing family,
make household tasks and
disciplining children
interactions difficult
P.T.A.
president
running meetings,
recruiting new members,
planning activities
has trouble getting members
to attend and follow through
on promises
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 2: Types of Social Interaction
Objectives:
 Identify the most common types of social
interaction.
 Distinguish between types of interactions that
stabilize social structure and those that can
disrupt it.
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 2: Types of Social Interaction
Common Types
of Social Interaction
 Exchange – interacting in an effort to receive a
reward or a return for one’s actions
 Competition – two or more people or groups in
opposition to achieve a goal that only one can attain
 Conflict – the deliberate attempt to control a person
by force, to oppose someone else, or to harm another
person
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 2: Types of Social Interaction
Common Types
of Social Interaction
(continued)
 Cooperation – two or more people or groups
working together to achieve a goal that will
benefit more than one of them
 Accommodation – a state of balance between
cooperation and conflict
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
 Social Institution – System of statuses, roles, values, and
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norms that is organized to satisfy one or more of the basic
needs of society.
Exchange Theory – Theory that holds that people are
motivated by self-interests in their interactions
Reciprocity – Idea that if you do something for someone, they
owe you something in return.
Georg Simmel – Sociologist – Identified four sources of
conflict.
A. War
B. Disagreement with in groups
C. Legal Disputes
D. Clashes over Ideology
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 2: Types of Social Interaction
Interactions That Stabilize and Disrupt
 Competition and Conflict – disrupt social
stability
 Accommodation, Exchange, and Cooperation
stabilize social stability
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Exchange
Conflict
Track Relay Team
encompasses all 5 types of
social interactions
Types of
Social
Interactions
Competition
Cooperation
Accommodation
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 3: Types of Societies
Objectives:
 Identify and describe the types of societies that
exist in the world today.
 Explain the roles individuals play in these
models of group systems.
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 3: Types of Societies
Role Behavior often takes place in groups, and
Sociologist often classify these groups/societies
according to Subsistence Strategies
Group – Set of two or more people who interact on
the basis of shared expectations and who possess
some degree of common identity.
Subsistence Strategies – Ways in which a society
uses technology to provide for the needs of its
members.
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 3: Types of Societies
Types of Societies
 Preindustrial – food production is the main economic
activity and can be subdivided according to the level
of technology and the method of producing food
 Industrial – emphasis shifts from the production of
food to the production of manufactured goods made
possible by changes in production methods
 Postindustrial – much of the economy is involved in
providing information and services
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Types of Societies - Preindustrial
Type of societies in which food productionscarried out through the use of human and
animal labor is the main economic activity
Can be subdivided according to the level of
technology and method of producing food
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Pre-Industrial Society Subdivision
Hunting and Gathering Society
 Type of society characterized by the daily
collection of wild plants and the hunting of
wild animals as the main form of subsistence
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Pre-Industrial Society Subdivision
Pastoral Society
 Type of society characterized by a reliance on
domesticated herd animals as the main form of
subsistence.
 Division of Labor – Specialization by individuals
or groups in the performance of specific economic
activities.
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Pre-Industrial Society Subdivision
Horticultural Society
 Type of society characterized by a reliance on
vegetables grown in garden plants as the main
form of subsistence.
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Pre-Industrial Society Subdivision
Agricultural Society
 Type of society characterized by the use of
draft animals and plows in the tilling of fields.
 Barter – Practice of exchanging one good for
another.
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Industrial Societies
 Type of Society in which the mechanized
production of goods is the main economic
activity.
 Urbanization – Concentration of the population in
cities
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Post-Industrial Societies
 Type of society in which economic activities
centers on the production of information and
provision of services.
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 3: Types of Societies
Preindustrial
hunting and
gathering; pastoral;
horticultural;
mechanical
solidarity
Industrial
agricultural
Types of
Societies
manufacturing
urban;
technology;
organic solidarity
Postindustrial
information;
provision of services
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 3: Types of Societies
Contrasting Societies
Sociologists have long been interested in how the social
structures of preindustrial and industrial societies differ
Durkheim – preindustrial societies are held together by:
Mechanical Solidarity – Close-knit-social relationships
common in Preindustrial societies that result when a small
group of people share values and perform the same task.
As a society becomes more complex, it gives way to:
Organic Solidarity – Impersonal social relationships,
common in Industrial societies that arise with increased job
specialization.
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 3: Types of Societies
Contrasting Societies
German Sociologist – Ferdinand Tönnies
– Defined two ideal types of societies based on the
structure of social relationships & degree of shared values
Gemeinschaft – Societies in which most members know one
another, relationships are close, and activities center on the
family and the community.
Gesellschaft – Societies in which social relationships are
based upon need rather than on emotions, relationships are
impersonal and temporary and individual goals are more
important than group goals.
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 4: Groups Within Society
Objectives:
 Summarize the major features of primary and
secondary groups.
 Identify the purposes that groups fulfill.
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 4: Groups Within Society
Groups – Four Major Features:
1) Consist of two or more people
2) Interaction among members
3) Members have shared expectations
The above features distinguish it from an ….
Aggregate – Groups of people gathered in the same place at the
same time who lack organization
OR ….
Social Category – Group of people who share a common trait
or status.
4) Members possess a common identity
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 4: Groups Within Society
Groups – Distinguishing Characteristics:
Size
 Dyad – Group with two members.
 Triad – Three- person group.
 Small Group – Group with few enough
numbers that everyone is able to interact on a
face to face basis (Sociologists have found that
in groups over 15, people tend to sort
themselves into smaller groups)
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 4: Groups Within Society
Groups – Distinguishing Characteristics:
Time
 Daily
 Weekly
 Monthly
 Annually
 You get the idea
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 4: Groups Within Society
Groups – Distinguishing Characteristics:
Organization
 Formal Group – A group in which the
structure, goals, and activities of the group are
clearly defined.
 Informal Group – A group in which there is
no official structure or established rules of
conduct.
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 4: Groups Within Society
Types of Groups
Features of Primary Groups
 Interact over a long period of time on a direct
and personal basis
 Entire self of the individual is taken into
account
 Relationships are intimate and face-to-face
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 4: Groups Within Society
Types of Groups
Features of Secondary Groups
 Interaction is impersonal and temporary in
nature
 Involve a reaction to only a part of the
individual’s self
 Casual and limited to personal involvement
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 4: Groups Within Society
 Reference Group – Any group with whom individuals
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identify and who’s attitudes and values they often adopt.
In-Group – Group that an individual belongs to and
identifies with.
Out-Group – Any group that an individual does not
belong to or identify with.
E-Community – A community of people who interact
through the internet or other electronic communications.
Social Network – Web relationship that is formed by the
sum total of an individual's interactions with other
people.
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 4: Groups Within Society
Functioning of Groups
 Select leaders – people that influence the attitudes
and opinions of others
 Define their boundaries – so that members can tell
who belongs and who does not
 Set goals, assign tasks, and make decisions
 Control their members’ behavior – if members
violate groups norms, the group cannot survive long
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
define boundaries
set goals
make decisions
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select leaders
GROUP
FUNCTIONS
assign tasks
control members’ behavior
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 4: Groups Within Society
Types of Leaders
 Leaders – People who influence the attitudes
and opinions of others.
 Instrumental Leaders – Leaders who are
task- oriented.
 Expressive Leaders – Leaders who are
emotion- oriented
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 3: Types of Societies
Roles of Individuals in Societies
 Roles related to:
 Leadership
 Family
 Work
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 5: The Structure of Formal Organizations
Objectives:
 Explain how bureaucracies are structured.
 Evaluate the effectiveness of bureaucracies.
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
1. Division of Labor
2. Ranking of Authority
Bureaucracy
5. Specific lines of promotion and
advancement
4. Rules and Regulations
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(Characteristics
identified by
Max Weber)
3. Employment based on
Formal qualification
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 5: The Structure of Formal Organizations
 Formal Organization – Large, complex secondary group that
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has been established to achieve specific goals. (Examples:
Schools, businesses, political and religious and youth
organizations, and labor unions)
Bureaucracy – Ranked authority structure that operates
according to specific rules and procedures.
Rationality – The process of subjecting every feature of
human behavior to calculations, measurement, and control.
Voluntary Association – Non profit association formed to
pursue some common interest.
Iron Law of Oligarchy – Tendency of organizations to
become increasingly dominated by small groups of people.
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 5: The Structure of Formal Organizations
Weber’s Model
 Division of Labor- Work is divided among specialist in
various positions. Each specialist is expected to perform
specific duties.
 Ranking of Authority- There are clear cut lines of
responsibility, and each individual is responsible to a
supervisor at a higher level.
 Employment based on formal qualifications- Specific
qualifications are required for each job. Individuals are hired
based upon tests, education or previous experience. (In a
bureaucracy, the job –not the job holder –is important.
Therefore everybody is replaceable).
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 5: The Structure of Formal Organizations
Weber’s Model
(continued)
 Rules and regulations- There are objective rules, regulations,
and routine procedures that identify the exact responsibilities
and authority of each person on staff.
 Specific lines of promotion and advancement- It is assumed
that employees expect a career with the organization. Thus
there are clear-cut lines of promotion and advancement.
Among the rewards for remaining with the organization are
job security and seniority.
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SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Head of the Bureaucracy
(CEO, Superintendent, president, etc.)
Department Head/VP
Department Head/VP
Subordinate
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Section 5: The Structure of Formal Organizations
Effectiveness of Bureaucracies
 Efficient at coordinating large numbers of
people, defining tasks and rewards
 Provides stability
 Can lose sight of goals, create red tape, and
result in oligarchies
 In some instances, rewards incompetence and
expands uncontrollably
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
CHAPTER 4
THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
SOCIOLOGY
Chapter Wrap-Up
1. How can a person’s status differ from his or her role?
2. How does role conflict affect groups and individuals?
How can it be resolved?
3. What are the five most common forms of interaction
recognized by sociologists?
4. Identify and describe the three broad categories of
societies used by sociologists.
5. How do the roles of group members differ between
primary and secondary groups?
6. What, according to Max Weber’s model, are the major
characteristics of a bureaucracy?
7. What weaknesses influence the effectiveness of
bureaucracies?
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
CHAPTER 4
THE STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
SOCIOLOGY
Essay Questions
1. Define bureaucracy, identify the five characteristics of a
bureaucracy, and then explain which of the five characteristics
is most related to “The Peter Principle”.
2. Identify six types of societies and describe the subsistence
strategy of each society.
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