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Chapter 2
Explaining the Social World: How do
We Know?
The development of
sociology as a science
Prior to the 19th century religion was a
strong influence on knowledge
19th century philosophers helped create
the modern way of studying science
Conditions that led to the
rise of sociology
The Industrial Revolution
The French Revolution
European Imperialism (and exposure to
other cultures)
Advances in the natural sciences
August Comte
Coined the term “sociology”
Called for systematic data collection and
objective analysis
Asked “What holds society together?”
(social statics or structure) and “Why is
there change in society?” (social
dynamics or process)
Assumptions of Science
There is a real physical world that can be
studied systematically
There is order in the world resulting from
causes and effects
Empirical tests allow us to gain knowledge of
the world
Scientific knowledge must be based on
measurable phenomena
Science is rooted in objectivity
Theories
Statements regarding how facts are related to
each other and the connection between them
The level of analysis and theory help determine
the method used to measure the social
phenomena
E.G., “Childhood experiences have an impact
on career choices”
Two types of reasoning
Deductive- moving from general theories
to specific hypotheses
Hypotheses- educated guesses based on
theories (e.g., “People who experienced
hospital stays as children will be more likely
to pursue careers in health care”)
Inductive- moving from specific data
(facts) to general theories
Steps in the Research
Process
Planning the study
Designing the research methods
Doing the analysis
Drawing conclusions
Planning a study
Define the problem clearly
Find out what is already known about the
topic
Formulate hypotheses
Operationalize variables
E.G., “hospital stay”= one or more overnight
stays in a hospital as a patient while under
the age of 16
Ways that two concepts can be related
Correlation
Cause and effect
Independent variable- the cause of change
Dependent variable- the variable that changes
Time dimension necessary
Spurious relationship
Control variables help eliminate the possibility of
a spurious relationship
Designing the research
methods
Methods depend upon the level of
analysis, the theory, and the research
question
The value of the study depends upon the
quality of the data collected
Survey method
Interview- conducted by speaking with
respondents directly
Questionnaire- respondents answer in
writing
Open-ended questions- allow the respondent to
answer however they wish
Close-ended questions- force the respondents to
choose from among a set of predetermined
responses
Field studies/observational methodssystematic, planned observations of
social interactions
Detached/non-participant- the researcher
merely observes
Participant observation- the researcher
participates in the activity being studied
Research effects- the group may be altered by
the presence of the researcher
Ethnography- a field study that involves self
reflection; the findings guide the future methods
and observations
Controlled experiments- all variables are
controlled except the ones being studied
Control group- subjects who are not
exposed to the treatment
Experimental group- subjects who are
exposed to the treatment
Allow for the examination of true cause and
effect, but cannot be used to study many
sociological questions, research effects may
result, and it is unethical to introduce many
variables into the laboratory
Existing sources- using pre-existing
materials in a new way
Secondary analysis- Using data that has
already been collected for other studies
Data may not be representative, may not directly
answer the researcher’s questions, and any
problems in the original data will persist in the
new study
Content analysis- systematic categorization
and recording of information from written or
recorded sources
Unobtrusive, inexpensive, and easy to do
Triangulation- the use of multiple methods of
research to enhance the accuracy of the
findings
Content
Analysis
Triangulation
Survey
Research
Participant
Observation
Selecting a sample
Sample- a small group of people who are
systematically chosen to represent the
larger population
Representative- accurately reflects the
group being studied
Random- every person in the population has
an equal chance of being selected
Non-representative- cannot be generalized
to the larger population
Doing the analysis and
drawing conclusions
Data is interpreted
Results are discussed and conclusions
are drawn about whether the hypotheses
are supported
Findings must be replicable
Each study gets us closer to an accurate
understanding of the social world
Ethical issues in social
research
Sociologists must ensure that subjects
are not harmed in any way and that their
confidentiality is protected
The subjects must provide informed
consent
Human subjects boards at universities
and research institutions help protect
subjects
Sociology’s major
theoretical perspectives
Theoretical perspective- a basic view of
society that:
Guides sociologists’ ideas and research
Helps them understand social behavior
Helps develop explanations of organized
social patterns and their relationships
Can be micro- or macro- level (all can be
used at the meso level)
Symbolic Interactionism
Level: micro to meso
Main ideas: through
interactions and symbols,
we socially construct our
worlds. These
constructions help us
decide how to act and are
dependent upon our
social positions
Key theorists: Mead, the
Iowa School, Weber
Main criticisms: neglects
macro-structures; difficult
to study concepts like “the
mind” and “the self”
Rational Choice Theory
Level: micro to meso
Main ideas: people make
choices based on utilitarian
factors motivated by self
interest; attempt to maximize
rewards and minimize costs
Main criticisms: macro-level
and internal processes given
little attention; challenge of
the idea that human behavior
is always self-centered or
utilitarian; cannot explain
altruistic behavior
Structural-functionalism
Level: meso to macro
Main ideas: society is
primarily stable and orderly;
all parts of the system are
interrelated and necessary
for society’s function
Key theorists: Comte,
Durkheim, Parsons
Main criticisms: Fails to
explain change in society;
assumes conflict is harmful
(but it can actually lead to
greater stability); just
because a system seems
stable does not mean that it
is equitable
Conflict Theory
Level: meso to macro
Main ideas: conflict underlies all
social relations because of
injustice in society; social change
is desirable, especially when it
can lead to greater equality; the
powerful impose their values and
beliefs on the weaker
Key theorists: Marx, DuBois,
Dahrendorf, Simmel, Coser,
Weber
Main criticisms: micro-level not
explained; difficult to test
empirically; not effective in
explaining cohesion and
cooperation
Feminist Theory
Level: micro to meso to macro
Main ideas: women are disadvantaged by the
hierarchical way society is organized; sociology
has traditionally been male dominated; feminist
theory is rooted in conflict and symbolic
interactionism
Main criticisms: the theory should address
the intersection of race, class, and gender
Using multiple theoretical
perspectives
Desirable because each theory makes its
own contribution