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Paradigms & Methodology Frame Work /Paradigm/ Culture/Methodology •Positivist - Scientific Method, Empiricism, Reductionism •Phenomenology - Interpretavist •Post-modern •Feminist •Marxist Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology • Ontology: being, existence , reality • Epistemology: knowledge (nature and limits) • Methodology: approach adopted Process •Inductive •Deductive (Note: sometimes Positivism is called hypothetico-deductive ) Method •Qualitative •Quantitative Key interpretations of the natural and social world Theological Social Postmodernism Phenomenology Feminism Positivism Scientific Method Natural Science The beginning of the Enlightenment (modern era) <1600 1700 1900 Bryan Mills 1800 2000 Positivism •Concerned with experience and empirical knowledge •Personal knowledge backed up by scientific verification - objective. •Named by in the 19th Century by Auguste Comte (French Mathematician and Philosopher) - though its origins date back to the Enlightenment. Think of an idea Test Report result • Deep in the human unconscious is a pervasive need for a logical universe that makes sense. But the real universe is always one step beyond logic. • -Frank Herbert, Dune Positivism… •Logical Positivism (just one of many offshoots) Wittgenstein. Moore, Russell (1920s/30s), •And then Logical Empiricism; •Both of which saw movements still further away from metaphysics and towards logic and empiricism, claiming that the positivist belief in scientific verification is itself unverifiable. How to identify Positivism … •Has an interest in cause and effect (this is caused by that) and generalisability (the findings are true for all) •uses the testing of hypotheses, •seeks objectivity and believes that an external object truth exists, •will emphasise correlation, •will probably be quantitative (numerical) but may also include qualitative work (interview, etc.) Hypotheses A hypothesis is a "statement that can be falsified" Coates (1996) gives us 5 'virtues' that make up a hypothesis: 1. Simplicity 2. Generality 3. Refutability 4. Modesty 5. Conservatism It is possible to see from this list why hypotheses are used by positivists, or, inversely, why phenomenologists have no use for them. Hypotheses H1 Team working improves productivity in medium sized, labour intensive, manufacturing companies. H0 Null - Team working has no measurable effect on productivity in medium sized, labour intensive, manufacturing companies. But: If you hit a tuning fork twice as hard it will ring twice as loud but still at the same frequency. That's a linear response. If you hit a person twice as hard they're unlikely just to shout twice as loud. That property lets you learn more about the person than the tuning fork. -Neil Gershenfeld Phenomenology • Interested in events as they appear to the consciousness, without reference to theory, deduction or assumptions • Named by Edmund Husserl (1913) - the study of structures of consciousness that enable consciousness to refer to objects outside of it. • Adapted by sociologists (Schutz) and emphasises peoples' experiences rather than scientific deduction - subjective. • Criticised for its habit of producing: Descriptions and uncontrolled hypotheses rather than explanation How to identify Phenomenology • Very unlikely to have any quantitative work. • Will use interviews, case studies, logs or focus groups. • • May even use ethnography (living/working amongst subjects). • Seeks interpretation - not cause and effect. • May use action-research or grounded theory Post Modernism • Towards the middle of the last century a shift began away from the importance of personal interpretation to the importance of discourse. • Positivists believed in an external objective world, phenomenologists in an internal subjective one and post-modernist in a world created by discourses. • Thus to understand the world we have to understand the discourse we operate within. • These discourses (conversations) can be actual conversations (creating cultural discourses), the media, academic disciplines, religions, professional discourses, etc • The world is not made of molecules, the world is made of stories. • • -Muriel Rukeyser Deductive and/or Inductive Process Deductive and/or Inductive Process Triangulation • You believe staff are not happy. • Qualitative interviews with staff: Pay is too low, more pay needed. • Quantitative research shows: Pay is better than equivalent firms, there are no problems. Triangulation • BOTH TOGETHER Whilst pay is better than could be expected the staff still have a feeling of being ‘hard done by’. • This may indicate a problem with management style or morale, more research is clearly required. • On their own neither approach would have produced the right 'answer'. Validity & Reliability Validity • The research must lead to the collection of valid data. How valid will depend on the method used and the type of information elicited. Research is valid if it is what it claims to be - truly representative Reliability • Replicability and measurability are of prime importance. It is this requirement of replicability that encourages positivists to use quantitative methods. The 'rule' is - you must be confident that another researcher would match your findings. Hypothesis deductive Positivist or Scientific Problem or lack of understandin g Methodology Choice phenomenologica l Post Modern Discourse analysis ? Mostly quantitative inductive qualitative