Transcript INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODS IN PERSONALITY …

RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
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Introduction
Ways of Knowing
Goals of Research
The Scientific Method
Research Settings
Research Methods
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Descriptive/Correlational
Experimental
Theory in Science
Research Ethics
Ways of Knowing
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Tenacity (Faith)
Authority
Consensus
Reason
Observation
Goals of Research
To “understand” human behaviour
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Describe
 Identify and classify regularly occurring sequence of events
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Explain
 Suggest why events occurred.
 Predict
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Find regularities and predictable relationships that exist between variables
Control
 Regulate the occurrence of the phenomenon
The Scientific Method
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Observation and Discovery
 Exploration of a phenomenon which helps to generate
hypotheses.
Demonstration
 Gather data to demonstrate, confirm, or support the
hypothesis.
Refutation
 Gather data to refute, disconfirm, reject a hypothesis.
Replication
 Repeat the study to examine generalizability, understand
contrary evidence, etc.
Research Settings
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Laboratory Studies
Field Studies
Descriptive/Correlational
Methods
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Goals:
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systematically describe social behaviour
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systematically describe relations between
variables.
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Some types of descriptive/correlational
methods include:
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Observation studies
Archival studies
Survey studies
Descriptive/Correlational
Methods, cont.
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Observational Studies
Obtrusiveness (Natural Observation to
Participant Observation)
Descriptive/Correlational
Methods, cont.
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Archival Studies
Archival analysis is a form of the observational
method whereby the researcher examines the
accumulated documents, or archives of a culture
(e.g., diaries, novels, magazines, and
newspapers).
Inter-judge reliability is the level of agreement
between two or more people who independently
observe and code a set of data.
Descriptive/Correlational
Methods, cont.
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Survey Studies
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Verbal (self-) reports
Types include
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Written questionnaire
Personal interview
Telephone interview
Descriptive Statistics
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Central Tendency
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Mean
Median
Variability
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Standard deviation
Correlation
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Correlation Coefficient
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A measurement of the degree to which two
variables are related. Ranges from –1.00
to +1.00.
Scatterplot
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A graphic representation of a correlation;
one value is plotted against the horizontal
axis and the other against the vertical axis.
Causation
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Covariation
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Temporal precedence
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The presumed cause (X) and effect (Y) are related
to each other.
The X occurred before the resumed effect Y
Third variable
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The relationship between X and Y is not explained
by the presence of other plausible causal agents.
Experimental Methods
Independent
 Dependent Variable
Variable
The variable (usually a
The factor that is
behaviour) that is
systematically
affected by the
manipulated so that
independent
the researcher can
variable.
examine its effect on
a dependent
variable.
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Experimental Methods,
continued
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Random selection or random sampling
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Every person in a given population has an
equal chance of being selected for the
sample
Random assignment to condition
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All participants have an equal chance of
taking part in any condition of an
experiment.
Experimental Methods, continued
An operational definition is the specification of how
variables are measured, or manipulated.
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Construct Validity
 The degree to which both the independent and
dependent variables accurately reflect or
measure the constructs of interest.
Experimental Methods, cont.
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Internal Validity
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The extent to which conclusions can be drawn
about the causal effects of one variable on
another.
See also “experimental realism”
Experimental Methods, cont.
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External Validity
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The extent to which the results of a study can
be generalized to the larger context
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Generalizability across situations
Generalizability across people
Generalizability across cultures
See also “mundane realism”
Inferential Statistics
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Statistical Significance
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The likelihood that an observed relation or
difference between two variables is not due to
chance factors.
Probability level (p-value): a numerical indicator
of how likely it is that the results of an experiment
occurred by chance and not because of the
independent variable (p < .05 means that there is
less than a 5 in 100 probability that the results
may be due to chance.)
Bias in Psychological Research
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Random Error
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Causes random variability in DV
Systematic Error or Bias
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Causes nonrandom variability in DV other
than that caused by the IV.
Types of Bias
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Sample Bias
Measurement Bias
Observer’s (Researcher’s) Bias
Subject’s Bias
Sample and Measurement
Biases
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Sample Biases
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Random assignment
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Measurement Biases
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Validity
Reliability
Observer’s and Subject’s Biases
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Observer-Expectancy Effects
(experimenter/Rosenthal effect)
Subject-Expectancy Effects
(demand characteristics)
Preventing Biases
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Single-blind study
Double-blind study
Placebo
What is a Theory
(and Related Constructs)?
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1. Construct
 A symbol or an analogy of an observable phenomenon.
2. Model
 A constructed representation of a part of the universe.
3. Theory
 A theory attempts to explain a phenomenon. It contains
constructs of that phenomenon and describes the
relations among these constructs. It incorporates
relations between the theoretical constructs and
observable variables that can be used to measure those
constructs.
 A theory is not necessarily supported by research
findings. Theories are usually partial, incomplete
explanations of a phenomenon, subject to expansion and
revision.
(Continued next slide)
What is a Theory (Continued)
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4. Hypothesis
 A simple declarative statement
derived from a theory, usually
regarding the nature of a construct
and/or its relation to other
constructs.
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING SCIENTIFIC
THEORIES
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1. Comprehensiveness
 Explains a wide range of phenomena
2. Internal Consistency
 Propositions and assumptions are consistent and fit
together in a coherent manner.
3. Parsimony
 Contains only those concepts and assumptions essential
for the explanation of a phenomenon.
4. Testability
 Concepts and relational statements are precise.
(Continued next slide)
Criteria for Evaluating Scientific Theories
(Continued)
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5. Empirical Validity
 Holds up when tested in the real world.
6. Heuristic Value
 Stimulates thinking and research.
7. Applied Value
 Helps solve problems in the real world.
Ethics
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Informed Consent
Risks and Benefits
Deception
Privacy, Confidentiality, and Anonymity
Special Groups
Informed Consent
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A description of the study should be
provided in advance, including mention
of: the purpose of the research;
expected benefits of the research;
methods (tasks to be performed); any
effects, risks or inconveniences of the
procedure; rights of the participant; and
any possible alternative procedures.
Risks and Benefits
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Protection from harm
The onus is on the researcher to avoid
or minimize risks to the subjects, both
in carrying out the research and in
publication of the results.
Deception
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Deception is a situation in which
subjects have essential information
withheld and/or are intentionally misled
about procedures and purposes.
A thorough debriefing is particularly
important in studies involving
deception.
Privacy, Confidentiality and
Anonymity
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Right to privacy
Personal information given by the
subject will be confidential. Wherever
possible, the researcher will take steps
to ensure the anonymity of the
subjects.
Vulnerable Groups
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Special care must be taken with
vulnerable groups to ensure ethical
treatment (e.g., prisoners, people with
mental disabilities, other cultures, etc.)