Transcript Definition of Quality Control/2

IT QM Part1 Lecture 2
Dr. Withalm 8-Apr-15
IT QM Bratislava
Lectures at the University of Bratislava/Spring 2014
27.02.2014
Lecture 1 Impact of Quality-From Quality Control to Quality Assurance
06.03.2014
Lecture 2 Organization Theories-Customer satisfaction-Quality Costs
13.03.2014
Lecture 3 Leadership-Quality Awards
20.03.2014
Lecture 4 Creativity-The long Way to CMMI level 4
27.03.2014
Lecture 5 System Engineering Method-Quality Related Procedures
03.04.2014
Lecture 6 Quality of SW products
10.04.2014
Lecture 7 Quality of SW organization
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Dr.Withalm
IT QM Bratsilava
Today’s Agenda
 From Quality Control to Quality Assurance
 Definition of Quality Control
 Definition of Quality Assurance
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IT QM Bratsilava
Conclusion of Part 1/1
 Impact of Quality
 Quality wins
 Quality deficiencies
 Standards
 Quality definition
 Evolution from quality control to TQM
 Shewhart, Deming, Juran, Feigenbaum, Nolan,
Crosby, Ishikawa
 Evolution of organization theory
 i.e. Taylorism, System Dynamics, System Thinking,
Quality Assurance
 Product liability
 Customer satisfaction
 Criteria, two-dimension queries, inquiry methods
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IT QM Bratsilava
Conclusion of Part 1/2
 Quality costs
 Failure prevention, appraisal, failure, conformity,
quality related losses, barriers
 Leadership
 Behavior, deal with changes, kinds of influencing
control, conflict resolution, syndromes to overcome
when introducing changes
 Audits
 Quality awards
 Creativity techniques
 Mind Mapping, Progressive Abstraction, Morphological
Box, Method 635, Synectics, Buzzword Analysis,
Bionic, De Bono
 Embedded Systems
 FMEA-Failure Mode Effect Analysis
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IT QM Bratsilava
Quality Assurance & Organization Theory
 Quality Assurance is considered as an essential part of organizational
theory
 Before starting to discuss organization theory the term quality control
must be made aware
 Beginning of control goes back at least to 300000 BC.
 Some famous buildings as the Pyramids of Gizeh justify this opinion
 That processes were established which ensured that parts fit
together
 At the peak of determination in 1787 the first time the replace ability
was requested
 i.e. attempts were undertaken to accomplish the exact dimensions
of the specifications (without any tolerances)
 However, they failed as practical experience shows:
 It‘ s impossible to produce absolute identical parts also when efforts
are extremely increased.
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IT QM Bratsilava
From Quality Control to Quality Assurance/1
 The question was raised:
 Does raising of efforts make sense or are other approaches
more appropriate ?
 And the following solution was found:
 values were introduced which enabled the producer to decide
if product may be produced within the tolerances ( Go )
 Nevertheless practitioners aim for exact values.
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IT QM Bratsilava
From Quality Control to Quality Assurance/2
Example:
Production of a cylinder
 Take into account values for accepting products
 What are the impacts on workers .
Perception:
 Definition of windows to decide
 if produced products lie inside or fall outside the
tolerances
 Go and No Go conditions
 For each target value:
 Declare upper and lower limit for tolerances
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IT QM Bratsilava
From Quality Control to Quality Assurance/3
Evolution of Control
Time
Evolution of Control
1mio years bc
Little Contol
300 000 bc
Beginning of Control
8000 bc
Parts fit together (Pyramids of Gizeh)
Exact Control :
1787 ac
Interchangeability of Parts
1840 ac
Go Decision
1870 ac
Go No Go Decision
1924 ac
Shewhart’s Quality Control Chart
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IT QM Bratsilava
From quality control to quality assurance/4
Philosophical View and Impacts.
 Transition from exact designed values to tolerance windows implies
The advancement from deterministic school of thought to the
probabilistic one.
 Confession that we are to a certain extent dependent on accident.
 Theory of probability gains in importance
 Investigation of new possibilities to reduce nonconforming units
 Search after methodologies to reduce efforts for testing
 However, an impact of all these discussion of tolerances lead to the
establishment of standardization institutes
 And rapid development of standards
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From quality control to quality assurance/5
Development of Standards
Standardization: Emerging of Standardization institutes
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IT QM Bratsilava
From Quality Control to Quality Assurance/6
Walter Andrew Shewhart/1
 From March 18, 1891 to March 11, 1967
 was a physicist, engineer and statistician
 sometimes known as the father of statistical quality control
 In his book “Statistical Method from the Viewpoint of Quality
Control” he describes three steps of quality control
 Specification
 Production ( provision of accomplishment )
 Inspection.“
 Developed the Quality Control Chart
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From Quality Control to Quality Assurance/7
Walter Andrew Shewhart/2
 Bell Telephone’s had been working to improve
 The reliability of their transmission systems
 Amplifiers and other equipment had to be buried underground
 There was a need to reduce the frequency of failure and
repairs
 In 1918 when Dr. Shewhart joined the Western Electric Company
 Industrial quality was limited to inspecting finished products
and removing defective items
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IT QM Bratsilava
From Quality Control to Quality Assurance/8
Walter Andrew Shewhart/3
 All changed on May 16, 1924
 Dr. Shewhart prepared a little memorandum only about one page in
length
 Over a third of that page was given over to a simple diagram
 Which we would all recognize today as a schematic control chart
 That diagram, and the short text which proceeded and followed it
 Set forth all of the essential principles and considerations
 Which are involved in what we know today a process quality
control
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From Quality Control to Quality Assurance/9
Walter Andrew Shewhart/4
 Shewhart’s work pointed out the importance of reducing variation in
manufacturing process
 And the understanding that continual process adjustment
 In reaction to non conformance actually increased variation
and degraded quality
 Shewhart framed the problem in terms of assignable – cause and
chance- cause variation
 And introduced the control chart as a tool for distinguishing
between the two
 Shewhart stressed that bringing a production process into a state of
statistical control
 Where there is only common cause variation
 And keeping it in control is necessary to predict future output
and to manage a process economically
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Walter Andrew Shewhart/5
 Shewhart discovered that observed variation in manufacturing data
 Did not always behave the same way as data in nature
 Brownian motion of particles
 Dr. Shewhart concluded that while every process displays variation
 Same processes display controlled variation
 that is natural to the process
 While others display uncontrolled variation
 That is not present in the process causal system at all times
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IT QM Bratsilava
Definition of Quality Control/1
 State at which specified values are within specified tolerances
 Shewhart’s most essential idea was to design a process
 Where you expect to produce products within a bandwidth
 When designing such a process
 Forecasting must be possible
 How often an expected product will lay within the specified
borders
 Of course most complex technical challenges must be
considered
 This production process should also ensure
 That variability can be reduced on an economic meaningful
degree
 This variability usually stem from accidental failures of some machine
tools
 Which are producing the products
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Definition of Quality Control/2
 Shewhart’s fundamental idea was:
 Specifying this production process
 Produce the product
 Inspect the produced product
 A tool which support all these phases is the so called
control chart
 It’s a forecasting method with minimal error
 A means for minimizing the variability
 At producing a product at given costs
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Definition of Quality Control/3
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Definition of Quality Control/4
Definition of Control Chart







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Is a statistical tool
 Intended to assess the nature of variation in a process
 Facilitating of forecasting and management
Control Chart is also known as “Shewhart Chart” or “ Process Behavior Chart”
Application of Control Chart facilitate the determination among common cause and
special cause
 Common cause: data points are within the six sigma border
 Such causes are impacting natural mean variation
 Special cause: data points lie outside the six sigma border
 Such causes must be dealt by process designer
Documentation of the values of measurement and statistical evaluation
Control of center of tolerance
Recognize the values of irritation before tolerance is exaggerated
Calculation of the process ability
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Definition of Quality Control/5
Processing a Control Chart

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Analyze the Chart
 1st Question: Is the process in statistical control?
 i.e. are the values within the 3 sigma limits
 If yes:
 Monitor the process for special cases
 Make changes to the process in order to continuously improve it
 If no:
 Circle point & investigate special cause
 2nd Question: Did you find the cause?
 If yes finding may be desirable or not
 Desirable:

Institute a special case & make a note
 Recalculate control limits if necessary
 Undesirable
 Remove special case & make a note
 Recalculate control limits if necessary
 If no:
 Make a note and recalculate the control limits
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IT QM Bratsilava
Definition of Quality Control/6
Composition of a control chart
• A centre line, drawn at the process mean;
• An upper control-limit also called an upper natural process-limit
• drawn three standard deviations above the centre line; and
• A lower control-limit also called a lower natural process-limit
• drawn three standard deviations below the centre line
How to proceed:
•Render data points about the timeline.
•Calculate the mean value
•Calculate the standard deviation
•Render mean value
•Render two parallels to the mean at intervals of +3s and
-3s
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Definition of Quality Control/7
Example of a Control Chart
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Definition of Quality Control/8
Scientific Reasons of 3 sigma limits
Shewhart set 3-sigma limits on the following basis
 The coarse result of Chebyshev's inequality that, for any
probability distribution, the probability of an outcome
greater than k standard deviations from the mean is at
most 1/k².
 The finer result of the Vysochanskii-Petunin inequality ,
that for any unimodal probability distribution, the
probability of an outcome greater than k standard
deviations from the mean is at most 5/9k².
 The empirical investigation of sundry probability
distributions that at least 99% of observations occurred
within three standard deviations of the mean.
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Definition of Quality Control/9
Fundamental terms of statistics/1
characteristic
quantitative
continuous
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qualitative
discrete
ordinal
nominal
Weight
Population figure
School grade
Gender
length
Sum of the pips on
the dice
hardness grade
color
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Definition of Quality Control/10
Fundamental terms of statistics/2
See Generally Safety Integrity Levels (SIL) from Lecture 1
Error
Critical Error
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(air crash)
Main Error
(car is not running)
Minor Error
(scratch on the mudguard)
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IT QM Bratsilava
Definition of Quality Control/11
Fundamental terms of statistics/3
 Mean:In general, given n numbers, their arithmetic mean
is computed by the formula
 Standard deviation of this population is defined as
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Definition of Quality Control/12
Fundamental terms of statistics/4
Range
R = xmax - xmin
acceptance boundaries
Upper acceptance boundary
UCLx = x + 3 s
Lower acceptance boundary
LCLx = x - 3 s
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Definition of Quality Control/13
Steps to reach the statistical quality control
•Ascertain
•How to collect data
•Control criteria
•Measures at deviations
•Required data to control the process statistically
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IT QM Bratsilava
Definition of Quality Assurance/1
Deming’s improvement of Shewhart’s wheel/1
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PLAN
DO
ACT
CHECK
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Definition of Quality Assurance/2
Deming wheel/1
Plan
 What could be the most important accomplishment of this team
 What changes might be desirable
 What data are available
 Are more observations needed
 If yes
 Plan or change or test
 Decide how to use the observations
Do
 Carry out the change or test
 Preferably on a small scale
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IT QM Bratsilava
Definition of Quality Assurance/3
Deming wheel/2
Check
Observe the effects of the
change or test
Act
Study the results
What did we learn
What can we predict
Step 5
Repeat step 1 with
knowledge accumulated
Step 6
Repeat step 2, and onward
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IT QM Bratsilava
Definition of Quality Assurance/4
Deming’s wheel in context with CMMI/1
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Definition of Quality Assurance/5
Impact of Shewhart’s Quality Control Approach/1
 Thanks to the specific Quality Control measures
 US material in the second world war was prevailing
 Sole nation with efficient infrastructure
 Producing products for the whole world
 Monopoly position because of the war

Otherwise no willingness to deal with methods
 For increasing the efficiency
 Suggested by Deming
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Definition of Quality Assurance/6
Impact of Shewhart’s Quality Control Approach/2
 Through the defeat in the second world war
 Japan was ready for innovative approaches suggested by
Deming
 Insular state with high population density
 Infrastructure destroyed by Second World War
 Devastating impact of two atomic explosions
 Hence, Japan was an ideal medium for
 Learning and applying Deming’s methods
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Definition of Quality Assurance/7
Impact of Deming’s Quality Assurance Approach
Deming Chain Reaction
 Improve Quality because
 Costs decrease because
 Less rework
 Fewer mistakes
 Fewer delays
 Snags
 Better use of machine time and materials
 Which implies that productivity improves
 Which furthermore implies that
 Market will be captured with better quality and lower price
 Staying in market
 Providing jobs and more jobs
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IT QM Bratsilava
Definition of Quality Assurance/8
Deming’s Approach
 Organizations were basing on Taylor’s principles
 Will be discussed in next lecture
 Example is “Working on the assembly line”
 Such organizations must be transcended by a transformation
 To reach the level of quality assurance
 Such a transformation is not
 One time project with defined starting and final conditions
 Measured on achievement criteria
 Such a transformation is a
 Cultural change as prerequisite for further operative changes
 Deming‘s 14 points are a forerunner of total quality management.
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Definition of Quality Assurance/9
Deming’s 14 Points/1
1. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of
product and service, with the aim to become competitive
and stay in business and to provide jobs.
2. Adopt a new philosophy. We are in a new economic age.
Western management must awaken to the challenge, just
learn responsibilities, and take on leadership for change.
3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality.
Eliminate the need for inspection on mass basis by
building into the product in the first place.
4. End the practice of awarding business of price tag.
Instead minimize total cost. Move toward a single supplier
for any item, on a long-term relationship of loyalty and
trust.
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Definition of Quality Assurance/10
Deming’s 14 Points/2
5. Improve constantly and forever the systems of production
and service, to improve quality and productivity and thus
constantly decrease costs.
6. Institute training on the job.
7. Institute leadership. The aim of leadership should be to
help people and machines and gadgets to do a better job.
Leadership of management is in need of overhaul, as well
as leadership of production workers.
8. Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively for
the company.
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Definition of Quality Assurance/11
Deming’s 14 Points/3
9. Break down barriers between departments. People in research,
design, sales and production must work as a team, to foresee
problems of production and in use that may be encountered with
the product or service.
10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations and targets for the work force
asking for zero defects and new levels of productivity.
11. Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor. Substitute
leadership. Eliminate management by objective. Eliminate
management by numbers, numerical goals. Substitute leadership.
12. Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker of his right to pride of
workmanship. The responsibility of supervisors must be changed
from sheer numbers to quality. Remove barriers that rob people in
management and in engineering of their right to pride of
workmanship.
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Deming’s 14 Points/4
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement.
14. Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the
transformation. The transformation is everybody's job.
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Definition of Quality Assurance/13
Deming’s Inheritance
 Both ISO 9000 as well as CMMI Assessments request
 Involvement of top management is essential
 In introducing quality assurance
 Management is responsible for the general conditions
 Under which processes and activities are defined
and performed
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Definition of Quality Assurance/14
System of profound knowledge/1
 Deming's theories are summarized in his two books,

Out of the Crisis and
 The New Economics,
 in which he spells out his "System of Profound
Knowledge”
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Definition of Quality Assurance/15
System of profound knowledge/2
Four components:
 Appreciation of a system
 Knowledge about variation
 Theory of Knowledge
 Psychology
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Definition of Quality Assurance/16
System of profound knowledge/3
Appreciation of a System/1
 An organization must be understood as a complex system
 Then top management is enabled to establish respectively to
improve long term and sustainable structures
 Including all employees
 Under structure building he understood
 Define borders, top down, bottom up, onion skin
 Proceeding
 From the whole (top management) to the part (employee)
 Policy deployment
 Working out of the visions and goals
 Workshops with all top managers and afterwards
deployment in all departments
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Definition of Quality Assurance/17
System of profound knowledge/4
Appreciation of a System/2
Vision/
Strategy
d
Coordination
e
Fe
Po
lic
k
yD
c
Ba
ep
lo
ym
en
t
Policy Deployment
Organization
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System of profound knowledge/5
Appreciation of a System/3
 Example from Siemens
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System of profound knowledge/6
Appreciation of a System/4
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
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Outstanding quality is vital for our success.
Quality is personal
Quality is the responsibility of each employee. We all share the
responsibility for our quality, with each of us making an active contribution to
the quality of our products and services with his or her work.
Quality is mandatory
Reaching and maintaining high quality standards requires their permanent
application and improvement in all our products and services. Quality must
become a matter of course in our day-to-day work.
Quality is all-encompassing
It pertains to all divisions of the company and is relevant for all aspectsof
our work. We all are called upon to boost the success of our company by
showing individual creativity and personal commitment to the cause.
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Definition of Quality Assurance/20
System of profound knowledge/7
Appreciation of a System/5
Budget
Vision/
Strategy/
Budget
Vision
Strategies
Processes
Performance Indicators
Which process
supports the
strategy
How are we
measure the
progress
superior strategy Indicator target
derived strategy
Indicator Actual
Measures
.
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Target dates
Actual Dates
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Definition of Quality Assurance/21
System of profound knowledge/8
Knowledge about Variation/1
 In evaluation problems and before making decisions
basing on
 Numbers, data, facts
 Some classical quality tools were established
 Tools to identify/analyze problems
 Tools to work with ideas
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Definition of Quality Assurance/22
System of profound knowledge/9
Knowledge about Variation/2
Tools to identify/analyze problems
Identify Problems
As well as
flowchart
Analyze Problems
Paretodiagramm
Histogram
Test arc-tally sheet
Cause/impact diagram
Disperse diagram
Brainstorming
Characteristic diagram
Control chart
Nominal group technique
lamination
Process capacity
Strength area
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Definition of Quality Assurance/23
System of profound knowledge/10
Knowledge about Variation/3
Tools to work with ideas
Work with Ideas
Work with Numbers
Flow Chart
Test arc-tally sheet
Brainstorming
Paretodiagramm
Nominal group technique
Characteristic diagram
Cause/impact diagrams
lamination
Strength area
Histogram
Disperse diagram
Control chart
Process capacity
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Definition of Quality Assurance/24
System of profound knowledge/11
Theory of Knowledge
 Deming proposed some issues as:
 Learning organization
 Lifelong learning
 Half time of knowledge
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System of profound knowledge/12
Psychology
 Some important issues/rules are:
 How to deal with employees
 Networking
 Virtual teams/cooperating
 New media
 Social manners
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System of profound knowledge/13
Application of „System of profound knowledge“
 Counterpoint to Taylorism:
 Laborer who is unskilled and focused is displaced by a
generalist.
 The Generalist
 Knows multi disciplinary contexts
 Introduces within an organization appropriate methods
 Trains colleagues to apply these methods
 Not necessary to be expert in one of the four components of
the system of profound knowledge
 Appreciation of a system
 Knowledge about variation
 Theory of Knowledge
 Psychology

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Dr.Withalm
IT QM Bratsilava
Thank you
for your attention!
IT QM Bratislava