Transcript Chapter 2: An Overview of Communication Development

Chapter 2:
An Overview of
Communication
Development
Justice
Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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2.1
Focus Questions
This chapter is designed to answer the
following questions:
• What is communicative competence?
• What is the foundation for communicative
competence?
• What are major communicative milestones
in infancy and toddlerhood?
• What are major communicative milestones
in preschool and school-age children?
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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2.2
Introduction
• To understand communication disorders,
we first must understand how
communication skills develop in “typical”
populations
• People all around the world reach
communication milestones at roughly the
same ages and in the same order
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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2.3
Chapter Objectives
• Define communicative competence
• Describe the foundation for communicative
competence
• Detail the major speech and language
milestones from birth to adolescence
• Discuss important multicultural issues in
language and speech development
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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2.4
Case Study #1: Leon Turner
• 2-year old with fraternal twin Lionel, and 6year old sister Leona – children of
professionals in Texas
• Parents concerned about Leon because,
unlike Lionel, does not inflect verbs and
speaks in only two-word sentences
• Both boys have smaller vocabularies and
are less inquisitive than Leona was
• Mr. Turner found site on Internet claiming
that 2-year olds should speak in at least 3word sentences
Justice
Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.5
Case Study #1 Questions:
• What are some reasons for the individual
differences between Leon and Lionel in
terms of language acquisition?
• Looking at the higher-level language
abilities of their sister Leona, do you think
birth order or gender has an influence on
language development?
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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2.6
Case Study #2: Reston
• Third grader at public school in N. Virginia
• Has struggled with language development
since he was a toddler
• Receives speech and language therapy
and works with specialist for reading and
writing
• Problems with recognizing how strings of
letters relate to certain sounds
• Parents think he should not have to take
the third grade state mandated
achievement test
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.7
Case Study #2 Questions
• Should all students, including Reston, be
required to take the state-mandated
achievement tests? (“high-stakes testing”)
• Should students with disabilities receive
special modifications for these tests? Who
receives them and who does not?
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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2.8
Case Study #3: Sam Donalds
• 46-year old man in rural West Virginia –
coal miner on disability and now wants to
improve his own reading and tutor children
• Reads at a third grade level and has
serious problems with phonological
awareness
• Attends Adult Literacy Education class at
local church
• Teacher does not think Sam can improve
reading skills because of problems with
phonological awareness
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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2.9
Case Study #3 Questions
• Do you think that Sam’s teacher is correct
that Sam will not be able to improve his
reading skills to a large extent?
• What would you recommend if you were
Sam’s teacher?
• Do you think a deficit in phonological
awareness is causing Sam’s reading
problems?
Justice
Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
2.10
I. What is Communicative
Competence?
Definition:
• “the knowledge and implicit awareness
that speakers of a language must possess
and utilize in order to communicate
effectively in their language”
• The speaker knows how, where, when,
and with whom to speak
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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2.11
What is Communicative Competence?
Remember from Chapter 1 the four processes
involved with communication:
• Formulation
• Transmission
• Reception
• Comprehension
Humans are able to successfully perform these
four processes if they possess two aspects of
communicative competence:
• Linguistic
• Pragmatic
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.12
Linguistic Aspects of
Communicative Competence
•
•
•
•
Phonological
Grammatical
Lexical
Discourse
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.13
1. Phonological Competence
• Ability to recognize and produce the
distinctive meaningful sounds of a
language (phonemes)
• Newborns can distinguish between the
sounds of all the languages of the world,
but this gradually diminishes
• Comprehension precedes production
because production depends on
development of articulators (vocal tract)
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.14
• Phonological processes: the normal
phonological deviations that young
children make in their speech
• Should not be confused with an
articulation disorder (unable to produce
sound in any context) or a phonological
disorder (deviations do not stop occurring
at appropriate age)
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.15
2. Grammatical Competence
• Ability to recognize and produce the
syntactic and morphological structures of a
language effectively
• Syntax example: infants demonstrate
understanding of word order by 16 months
• Morphology example: infants demonstrate
understanding of morphemes separated
from verb stems by 18 months
• As always, comprehension precedes
production
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.16
3. Lexical Competence
• Ability to recognize and produce the
conventional words used by speakers of a
language
• 4.5 months – understand own name
• 6 months – understand names of salient
figures (e.g., mommy)
• 12 months – first true word
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.17
4. Discourse Competence
• Ability to use fluency, coherence, and
cohesion in relating information to others
• Unit of analysis: “speech event”
• Common example – failure to take the
receiver’s perspective and knowledge of
situation into account
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.18
Pragmatic Aspects of
Communicative Competence
•
•
•
•
Functional
Sociolinguistic
Interactional
Cultural
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.19
1. Functional Competence
• Ability to achieve a variety of
communication purposes in a language
• Remember from Chapter 1 – people
communicate for many reasons, the most
basic being:
-request
-reject
-comment
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.20
2. Sociolinguistic Competence
• Ability to: (a) interpret the social meaning
conveyed by language and (b) to choose
language that is appropriate for specific
social situations
• Speech register: the variety of speech
appropriate to a particular speech situation
-informal registers
-formal registers
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.21
3. Interactional Competence
• Ability to understand and apply implicit
rules for interaction in various
communication situations, including:
-starting and maintaining conversation
-following standards for body language,
eye contact, and physical proximity
• Acceptable standards vary both between
and within cultures
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.22
4. Cultural Competence
• Ability to function effectively in cultural
contexts by interpreting behavior of others
and behaving in an acceptable way
according to the culture
• Must understand culture’s attitudes,
values, and beliefs
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.23
II. What is the Foundation for
Communicative Competence?
• Infants are not born with communicative
competence, but there are several early
foundations that allow it to develop,
including:
-joint reference and attention
-rituals of infancy
-caregiver responsiveness
-infant speech perception
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.24
1. Joint Reference and Attention
• Phase One: (0-6 months) develops ability
to maintain attention for sustained periods
of interpersonal interaction
• Phase Two: (6-12 months) develops joint
attention: simultaneous engagement of
two or more individuals in mental focus on
same external object – leads to intentional
communication (deliberate attempts at
communication with others)
• Phase Three: ability to use language
within interpersonal interactions
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.25
2. Rituals of Infancy
• Daily routines such as feeding, bathing,
and dressing provide opportunities for
learning language:
-infants hear the same words and
phrases over and over
-many chances for joint attention
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.26
3. Caregiver Responsiveness
• Attention and sensitivity to infants’
vocalizations and communicative attempts
• Waiting and listening
• Following the child’s lead
• Joining in and playing
• Being face to face
• Using a variety of questions and labels
• Encouraging turn taking
• Imitating
• Expanding and extending
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.27
4. Infant Speech Perception
and Categorization
• Perception and categorization of
phonemes, rhythm, prosody, and lexical
items – innately given
• With this skill and increasing language
experience, infants soon develop ability to
detect distributional regularities
• Eventually, infants are able to segment
phrases and words from continuous
speech
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.28
III. Communicative Milestones
• Beginning at birth, children all over the
world reach certain communication
milestones at approximately the same age
and in the same order
• Four main developmental periods:
-infancy
-toddlerhood
-preschool-age
-school-age
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.29
Milestones in Infancy
• Stages of Vocal Development:
-Phonation (0-1 month)
-Gooing and Cooing (2-3 months)
-Expansion Stage (4-6 months)
-Canonical Babbling (6-8 months)
-Variegated Babbling (8+ months)
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.30
Milestones in Infancy
• Emergence of Intentionality:
-Until roughly 7 months, infants are preintentional
-Between 7 and 12 months, infants
have intentional communication, as
evidenced by gestures, pointing, and
eye contact
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.31
Milestones in Infancy
• Transition to Symbolic Representation
-words are arbitrary symbols that
represent concepts in the world
-infants develop “mental dictionaries”
with lexical entries
-at roughly 12 months, infants begin
using symbols, including words and
referential gestures (gesture carrying a
fixed meaning)
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.32
Milestones in Infancy
• The First Word:
-first “true” word occurs around 12
months, on average
-what makes it a “true” word?
-clear intention and purpose
-recognizable pronunciation
-consistent use and extends
beyond original context
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.33
Milestones in Toddlerhood
• Achievements in Form:
-grammatical morphemes
-transition to multi-word utterances
-distinct grammar that governs word
order
-Mean Length of Utterance (MLU)
-basic mastery of three sentence forms:
-yes/no questions
-wh-questions
-negatives
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.34
Milestones in Toddlerhood
• Achievements in Content:
-vocabulary spurt (“naming explosion”)
-receptive lexicon much greater than
expressive lexicon
-underextensions used
-overextension used
-categorical
-analogical
-relational
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
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2.35
Milestones in Toddlerhood
• Achievements in Use
-use a variety of language functions:
-From Chapter 1, instrumental,
regulatory, personal interactional,
heuristic, imaginative, and
informative
-not highly skilled in conversation (may
not respond, maintain topic, or keep
audience’s needs in mind)
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.36
Milestones in Toddlerhood
• Achievements in Speech:
-2-year olds correctly produce about 70% of
sounds they use
-Attainment of specific phonemes:
-Norm references: customary age of
production vs. mastery
-Phonological processes:
-articulatory adjustments that
occur during speech
-final consonant deletion, reduplication,
consonant harmony, weak syllable
deletion, diminutization, cluster
reduction, liquid gliding
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.37
Milestones in Preschool
• Achievements in Form:
-grammatical morphology
-articles, verb morphology
-derivational morphology
-prefixes, suffixes
-sentence complexity
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.38
Milestones in Preschool
• Achievements in Content:
-Lexicon development
-average of 13,000 words by
kindergarten
-fast mapping
-Decontextualized language
-events and concepts beyond the
here and now
-necessary for academic success
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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2.39
Milestones in Preschool
• Achievements in Use
-even more language functions,
including interpretive, logical,
participatory, and organizing
-turn-taking skills
-Narratives
-true narratives – age 4
-predictor of later school
outcomes
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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2.40
Milestones in Preschool
• Achievements in Speech:
-by start of kindergarten, children will
have mastered nearly all native
language phonemes
-suppression of phonological processes
-environmental and biological factors
can impact development
- linguistic stimulation, middle ear
infections
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.41
Milestones in Preschool
• Achievements in Emergent Literacy:
-developing knowledge about reading
and writing conventions
-print awareness
-interest, functions, conventions,
and part-to-whole relationships
-phonological awareness
-understanding of the sound
structure of spoken words
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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2.42
School-Age Milestones
• Functional Flexibility:
-Ability to use language for an even
larger variety of purposes:
-compare/contrast
-persuade
-hypothesize
-explain
-classify
-predict
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.43
School-Age Milestones
• Reading and Writing:
-alphabetic principle: how orthography
(graphemes) relates to phonology
(phonemes)
-Stages of reading:
1. Decoding
2. Confirmation, fluency, and
ungluing from print
3. Reading for learning the new
4. Multiple viewpoints: High school
5. Construction and reconstruction – a
world view: College
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.44
School-Age Milestones
• Literate Language:
-language is highly decontextualized
-learning to talk vs. talking to learn
-specific features of literate language:
-elaborated noun phrases
-adverbs
-conjunctions
-mental/linguistic verbs
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2.45
School-Age Milestones
• Form and Content Refinements
-complex syntax, more evident in
written language (e.g., persuasive
writing)
-high school graduation, command
over 60,000 words
-Content development areas:
-multiple meanings
-lexical ambiguity
-figurative language
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Communication Sciences and Disorders: An Introduction
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.