Transcript Counting Race4 - pantherFILE

Counting Race
The Census and the Classification
of Race and Ethnicity
Margo Anderson
Professor, History & Urban Studies
University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee
Outline
• Census History: constitutional origins and
functions; technical implementation
• Demographic history of US and implications of
growth and change on the political system
• History of the Classification of Race and
Ethnicity in the Census in the context of the
history of the census and the demographic
history of the US
Outline
• A disclaimer: for the sake of clarity, I ignore
other issues of race classification, which I
hope we can return to.
I. Building the American State
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Article 1, Section 2, Paragraph 3
• Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned
among the several States which may be included
within this Union, according to their respective
Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the
whole Number of free Persons, including those bound
to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians
not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual
Enumeration shall be made within three Years after
the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States,
and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in
such Manner as they shall by Law direct.
Importance of the Census
• The United States was the first
nation in the history of the world to
take a population census and use it
to allocate seats in a national
assembly according to population.
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Importance of the Census
• The U.S. has had one of the most demographically
dynamic and diverse populations in the history of the
world.
• The combination of the census as mechanism to
adjust power and resources each decade, in
conjunction with the demographic dynamism and
diversity, made the census and the statistical system
truly central to the functioning of the society and
state
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Importance of the Census
• Dynamism is measured by patterns of population
growth and change
• Diversity involves geographic diversity, group
diversity, and different rates of change for different
parts of the country, and among the groups.
• Hence three levels
– Numerical growth
– Geographic diversity
– Racial and ethnic diversity
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Numerical Growth
From 3.9 million to 309 million:
Growth
• 13 states have become 50 states.
• House of Representatives grew from 65 to 435
members.
• The average congressional district after the 2010
Census will be larger than the total population of any
of the original 13 states in 1790.
• Growth has been differential: some states and local
areas lose while others gain.
11
Population Growth, 1790-2000
Population (millions)
300
250
UK
200
FR
150
US
100
50
0
Year
Admitting States to the Union
13
Growth in the Size of the House
of Representatives
14
Differential Population Growth:
New York State Population and
House Delegation, 1790-2010
15
Projected Changes in House Seats
after 2010
16
Geographic Diversity
Geographic Diversity:
Westward Expansion
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Geographic Diversity:
The First Gerrymander, 1812
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Racial and Ethnic Diversity
Click to see Census Bureau Web Home Page
Click to see Redistricting Info (PL-94-171)
Click to see Table
Click to see Census 2000 Brief
http:/www.census.gov
http://census.gov/clo/www/redistricting.html
http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/atlas/white_a.pdf
http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-4.pdf
Click to see Census Bureau Web Home Page
Click to see Redistricting Info (PL-94-171)
Click to see Table
Click to see Census 2000 Brief
http://www.census.gov/
http://www.census.gov/clo/www/redistricting.html
http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/atlas/black_a.pdf
http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-5.pdf
Click to see Census Bureau Web Home Page
Click to see Redistricting Info (PL-94-171)
Click to see Table
Click to see Census 2000 Brief
http://www.census.gov/
http://www.census.gov/clo/www/redistricting.html
http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/atlas/his_lat.pdf
http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-3.pdf
Civil War Demographic Map
How did the Census Measure and
Classify Race and Ethnicity?
• Key Dates
– 1787: Constitution
– 1790: First Census
– 1820-1870: Race, Abolition of Slavery and
Emancipation
• 1820: First true measurement of “race” in the census
• 1850: Individual level census: the start of the
expansion of the list of categories
• 1865-1870: Abolition of Slavery and the Three Fifths
Compromise; Race in the 14th and 15th Amendments
How did the Census Measure and
Classify Race and Ethnicity?
• Key Dates, cont.
– 1870 and later: racializing Asians
– 1900-1910: proposal to racialize immigrants
– 1930: Census racializes Mexicans (only in 1930)
– 1970: Mail census – self enumeration and thus
self definition of race
– 1978-1980: Hispanic/Latino ethnicity defined by
OMB15
– 1990s-2000: End of monoracial classification
Article 1, Section 2, Paragraph 3
• Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned
among the several States which may be included
within this Union, according to their respective
Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the
whole Number of free Persons, including those bound
to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians
not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual
Enumeration shall be made within three Years after
the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States,
and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in
such Manner as they shall by Law direct.
From constitutional categories to
race categories, 1787-1820
• 1787: The original constitutional structure: a
mixture of labor status and citizenship status
– free,
– slave,
• or
– Indians not taxed
From constitutional categories to
race categories, 1787-1820
• 1790: The original implementation categories.
For each household, the number of:
– free white males 16 and over;
– free white males under 16;
– free white females;
– other free people;
– slaves
• The categories define: military capacity and
apportionment under the 3/5ths Compromise
• The only race category is “white”
Evolution of the Categories
• The original conflation of labor status and
citizenship status meant that “race” as a
concept in the census is incoherent.
• The only category initially defined is “white.”
• At the same time (1790), the first
naturalization statute restricted citizenship to
“whites”
Changes
• 1820: Census statute first used of the term
“free colored persons”
• First age and sex breakdowns of “slave” and
“free colored persons” tabulations.
• Function: debates about gradual
emancipation and the Missouri Compromise.
Does the demographic trajectory of the free
colored population resemble that of the slave
population?
Changes
• 1850: First individual level census, and thus
the first need to identify and designate the
“race” of individuals
• Congress debated the census process at the
same time they debated the Compromise of
1850.
• Issue was emancipation and future of slave
labor system.
• Outcome: 2 census forms; one for slaves and
one for free persons; different questions, but
both asked for “race”
1850-1860 Census Innovations
• Slave Schedule race categories: Black or
Mulatto
• Free Schedule race categories: White, Black
or Mulatto
• 1860 Census added “Ind” as a race category
for “Indians who have renounced tribal rule,
and who under State or Territorial laws
exercise the rights of citizens”
Wartime Amendments: 14th
Amendment, Section 2, 1868
• Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole
number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed.
But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of
electors for President and Vice-President of the United States,
Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers
of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied
to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one
years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way
abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime,
the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the
proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to
the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in
such State
Fifteenth Amendment, 1870
• The right of citizens of the United States to
vote shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States or by any State on account of
race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
1870 to 1890
• Congress added Chinese to the race categories
in 1870
• Congress added quadroon and octoroon to
race categories in 1890
• Census office added Japanese to race
categories in 1890
Draft Census Schedule in 1870
House Census Bill
1900-1930: Expansion of the Race
Categories
• 1910: Senate proposal to change the question
to “race or people” to racialize immigrants.
“Mother tongue” question added as an
alternative
• 1910: Other race category added to the form.
• 1920 categories: W, B, Mu, In, Ch, Jp, Fil, Hin,
Kor, Ot
• 1930 categories: W, Neg, Mex, In, Ch, Jp, Fil,
Hin, Kor, Ot
Categories, 1960-1990
• 1960 White, Negro, American Indian, Japanese, Chinese,
Filipino, Hawaiian, Part Hawaiian, Aleut, Eskimo,(etc)
• 1970 White, Negro or Black, Indian (Amer), Japanese,
Chinese, Filipino, Hawaiian, Korean, Other (print race)
• 1980 White, Negro or Black, Japanese, Chinese, Filipino,
Korean, Vietnamese, Indian(Amer), Asian Indian, Hawaiian,
Guamanian, Samoan, Eskimo, Aleut, Other(specify)
• 1990 White, Black or Negro, Indian(Amer), Eskimo, Aleut,
Chinese, Filipino, Hawaiian, Korean, Vietnamese, Japanese,
Asian Indian, Samoan, Guamanian, Other API, Other race
Current Classification of Race
and Ethnicity
• “Standards for Maintaining, Collecting, and
Presenting Federal Data on Race and
Ethnicity,” are promulgated by the U.S. Office
of Management and Budget (OMB)
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1978 OMB “Statistical Directive 15”
• For the first time, the federal government
promulgated a government wide standard for
the classification of race and ethnicity
– Race:
- American Indian or Alaskan Native
- Asian or Pacific Islander
- Black
- White
– Ethnicity:
- Hispanic origin
- Not of Hispanic origin
1997 Revision
• 1997 Revision of Statistical Directive 15:
– Five categories for data on race:
•
•
•
•
•
American Indian or Alaska Native
Asian
Black or African American
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
White.
– Two categories for data on ethnicity:
• Hispanic or Latino, and
• Not Hispanic or Latino
1997 Revision:
“More than one race”
• “…OMB accepts the … recommendations
concerning reporting more than one race:
– When self-identification is used, a method for
reporting more than one race should be adopted.
– The method for respondents to report more than one
race should take the form of multiple responses to a
single question and not a "multiracial" category.…
– Based on research conducted so far, two
recommended forms for the instruction
accompanying the multiple response question are
"Mark one or more ..." and "Select one or more...." “
Race and Ethnicity, continued
• The Statistical Policy Directive can be
tabulated in 63 census racial groups, that is
the six main groups plus 57 multiple
combinations.
• The 63 groups can be cross classified by
Hispanic origin, allowing for 126 racial and
ethnic categories.
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2000 Demographic Results
• Race and ethnicity:
– 75.1% White
– 12.3% Black or African
American
– 3.6% Asian
– .9% American Indian,
Alaska Native
– .1% Native Hawaiian or
other Pacific Islander
• Race and ethnicity…
– 2.4% two or more races
– 5.5% some other race
– Hispanic population
grew 58% during the
1990s, to 12.5% of the
population or 35.3
million.
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Demography of Race and Ethnicity,
1790-Present
• The classifications and their changes provide
one window into the issues of race in the
census
• The changing proportions of the resulting race
“groups” over the history of the nation
provide another window.
Population Growth, 1790-2000
Population (millions)
300
250
UK
200
FR
150
US
100
50
0
Year
Percent of US Population White
Percent White
100
90
80
70
1780
1860
1940
Year
2020
Proportion of the US Population Black
Percent Black/Afridan American
20
15
10
5
1780
1860
1940
YEAR
2020
Percent
of
US
Population
Neither
Percent of US Population Neither White Nor Black
White Nor Black
Percent Neither White Nor Black
15
10
5
0
1780
1860
1940
YEAR
2020
The Changing Proportions of Races
in the US Population, 1790-2010
Current Patterns of Race and
Nativity
Current Patterns of Race and
Nativity
Geography of Race and Ethnicity
Civil War Demographic Map
Dedication
…corresponding with the official
returns of the 8th Census
Click to see Census Bureau Web Home Page
Click to see Redistricting Info (PL-94-171)
Click to see Table
Click to see Census 2000 Brief
http:/www.census.gov
http://census.gov/clo/www/redistricting.html
http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/atlas/white_a.pdf
http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-4.pdf
Click to see Census Bureau Web Home Page
Click to see Redistricting Info (PL-94-171)
Click to see Table
Click to see Census 2000 Brief
http://www.census.gov/
http://www.census.gov/clo/www/redistricting.html
http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/atlas/black_a.pdf
http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-5.pdf
Click to see Census Bureau Web Home Page
Click to see Redistricting Info (PL-94-171)
Click to see Table
Click to see Census 2000 Brief
http://www.census.gov/
http://www.census.gov/clo/www/redistricting.html
http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/atlas/his_lat.pdf
http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-3.pdf
Click to see Census Bureau Web Home Page
Click to see Redistricting Info (PL-94-171)
Click to see Table
Click to see Census 2000 Brief
http://www.census.gov/
http://www.census.gov/clo/www/redistricting.html
http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/atlas/aian_b.pdf
http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/c2kbr01-15.pdf
Click to see Census Bureau Web Home Page
Click to see Redistricting Info (PL-94-171)
Click to see Table
Click to see Census 2000 Brief
http://www.census.gov/
http://www.census.gov/clo/www/redistricting.html
http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/atlas/asian_b.pdf
http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/c2kbr01-16.pdf
Questions for the Future…
• What will we learn from Census 2010?
• Is there a common understanding of what
Americans mean when they talk about race,
ethnicity, citizenship and nativity?
• How much does the Census influence or
determine those understandings?
• How much does the Census reflect those
understandings?
Thank you…For more
information:
Margo Anderson
History & Urban Studies
University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee
[email protected]