Transcript Structure and Function - Fullfrontalanatomy.com

Chapter 21
Unifying Concepts of Animal
Structure and Function
PowerPoint® Lectures for
Campbell Essential Biology, Fourth Edition
– Eric Simon, Jane Reece, and Jean Dickey
Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology, Third Edition
– Eric Simon, Jane Reece, and Jean Dickey
Lectures by Chris C. Romero, updated by Edward J. Zalisko
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Biology and Society:
Keeping Cool
• Our bodies are kept in a narrow temperature range.
• When we exercise, our bodies are cooled by:
– Evaporation of sweat on the skin
– Expansion of blood vessels near the skin surface
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Figure 21.00
• Extreme conditions can lead to:
– Loss of consciousness in heat exhaustion
– Even higher body temperatures, which can disrupt the brain’s control
center
– Heat stroke, a life-threatening emergency
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THE STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF
ANIMALS
• Life is characterized by a hierarchy of organization.
• In animals:
– Individual cells are grouped into tissues
– Tissues combine to form organs
– Organs are organized into organ systems
– Organ systems make up the entire organism
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Cellular level:
Muscle cell
Figure 21.1-1
Cellular level:
Muscle cell
Tissue level:
Cardiac muscle
Figure 21.1-2
Cellular level:
Muscle cell
Tissue level:
Cardiac muscle
Organ level:
Heart
Figure 21.1-3
Cellular level:
Muscle cell
Tissue level:
Cardiac muscle
Organ level:
Heart
Organ system level:
Circulatory system
Figure 21.1-4
Cellular level:
Muscle cell
Tissue level:
Cardiac muscle
Organ level:
Heart
Organ system level:
Circulatory system
Organism level: Multiple
organ systems
functioning together
Figure 21.1-5
Form Fits Function
• Analyzing a biological structure gives us clues about:
– What it does
– How it works
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(b) At the organ level
(a) At the organism level
(c) At the cellular level
Figure 21.2
(a) At the organism level
Figure 21.2a
(b) At the organ level
Figure 21.2b
(c) At the cellular level
Figure 21.2c
• Biologists distinguish anatomy from physiology.
– Anatomy is the study of the structure of an organism.
– Physiology is the study of the function of an organism’s structural
equipment.
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Tissues
• In most multicellular animals, cells are grouped into tissues.
– A tissue is an integrated group of similar cells that perform a specific
function.
– Animals have four main categories of tissue.
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Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelial tissue, also known as epithelium:
– Covers the surface of the body
– Lines organs and cavities within the body
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Some examples of organs
lined with epithelial tissue:
Heart
Lung
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Urinary bladder
Epithelial cells
Epithelial tissue
lining esophagus
Epithelial tissue
lining small intestine
Figure 21.3
Some examples of organs
lined with epithelial tissue:
Heart
Lung
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Urinary bladder
Figure 21.3a
Epithelial tissue lining esophagus
Figure 21.3b
Epithelial tissue lining small intestine
Figure 21.3c
• Cells of epithelial tissues:
– Are bound tightly together
– Form a protective barrier
– Fall off and are continuously renewed
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Connective Tissue
• Connective tissues have a sparse population of cells in an
extracellular matrix consisting of a web of protein fibers within a
uniform foundation that may be liquid, jellylike, or solid.
• The structure of connective tissue is correlated with its function:
to bind and support other tissues.
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Fat
droplets
Cell
Collagen
fiber
(a) Loose connective tissue
(under the skin)
(b) Adipose tissue
White blood
cells
Red blood
cell
Plasma
(c) Blood
Cell
nucleus
Collagen
fibers
Matrix
Cells
(d) Fibrous connective tissue
(forming a tendon)
Cells
Matrix
(f) Bone
(e) Cartilage (at the end of a bone)
Figure 21.4
Cell
Collagen fiber
(a) Loose connective tissue
(under the skin)
Figure 21.4a
Fat
droplets
(b) Adipose tissue
Figure 21.4b
White blood cells
Red blood cell
Plasma
(c) Blood
Figure 21.4c
Cell nucleus
Collagen fibers
(d) Fibrous connective tissue
(forming a tendon)
Figure 21.4d
Cells
Matrix
(e) Cartilage (at the end of a bone)
Figure 21.4e
Matrix
Cells
(f) Bone
Figure 21.4f
• Loose connective tissue:
– Is the most widespread connective tissue
– Binds epithelia to underlying tissues
– Holds organs in place
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• Adipose tissue:
– Stores fat
– Stockpiles energy
– Pads and insulates the body
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• Blood:
– Is a connective tissue with a matrix of liquid
– Contains red and white blood cells suspended in plasma
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• Fibrous connective tissue:
– Has a dense matrix of collagen
– Forms tendons and ligaments
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• Cartilage:
– Has a strong but rubbery matrix
– Functions as a flexible, boneless skeleton
– Forms the shock-absorbing pads that cushion the vertebrae of the spinal
column
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• Bone:
– Is a rigid connective tissue
– Has a matrix of collagen fibers hardened with deposits of calcium salts
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Muscle Tissue
• Muscle tissue:
– Consists of bundles of long, thin, cylindrical cells called muscle fibers
– Has specialized proteins that contract when stimulated by a nerve
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Unit of
muscle
contraction
Muscle
fiber
(cell)
Junction between
Muscle
two cells
fiber
Nucleus
Nuclei
(a) Skeletal muscle
(short segments of
several muscle fibers)
(b) Cardiac muscle
Muscle fiber
Nucleus
(c) Smooth muscle
Figure 21.5
Unit of
muscle
contraction
Muscle fiber
(cell)
Nuclei
(a) Skeletal muscle
(short segments of
several muscle fibers)
Figure 21.5a
Muscle
fiber
Junction between two cells
Nucleus
(b) Cardiac muscle
Figure 21.5b
Muscle fiber
Nucleus
(c) Smooth muscle
Figure 21.5c
• Skeletal muscle is:
– Attached to bones by tendons
– Responsible for voluntary movements
– Striated because the contractile apparatus forms a banded pattern in each
cell or fiber
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• Cardiac muscle is:
– Composed of cells that are branched and striated
– Found only in heart tissue
– Responsible for the contraction of the heart
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• Smooth muscle is:
– Named for its lack of obvious striations
– Found in the walls of various organs
– Involuntary
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Nervous Tissue
• Nervous tissue:
– Makes communication of sensory information possible
– Is found in the brain and spinal cord
– Consists of a network of neurons
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Brain
Spinal cord
Signal-receiving
extensions
Cell body
LM
Signaltransmitting
extensions
Nerve
Figure 21.6
Brain
Spinal cord
Nerve
Figure 21.6a
Cell body
Signaltransmitting
extensions
LM
Signal-receiving
extensions
Figure 21.6b
Organs and Organ Systems
• An organ consists of two or more tissues packaged into one
working unit that performs a specific function.
• Examples include the heart, liver, stomach, brain, and lungs.
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Small intestine
(cut open)
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
(containing blood
and lymph vessels)
Smooth muscle
tissue (two layers)
Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue
Figure 21.7
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
(containing blood
and lymph vessels)
Smooth muscle
tissue (two layers)
Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue
Figure 21.7a
• Organ systems:
– Are teams of organs that work together
– Perform vital body functions
Blast Animation: Anatomy of the Kidney
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Skeletal system:
supports body and
anchors muscles
Bone
Cartilage
Figure 21.8a
Circulatory system:
transports substances
throughout body
Heart
Blood vessels
Figure 21.8b
Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchus
Lung
Respiratory system:
exchanges O2 and
CO2 between blood
and air
Figure 21.8c
Digestive system:
breaks down food
and absorbs
nutrients
Mouth
Esophagus
Liver
Stomach
Large intestine
Small intestine
Anus
Figure 21.8e
Muscular system:
moves body
Skeletal muscles
Figure 21.8d
Urinary system:
rids body of
certain wastes
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary bladder
Urethra
Figure 21.8f
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Endocrine system:
secretes hormones
that regulate body
Parathyroid gland
Thyroid gland
Adrenal gland
Pancreas
Ovary
(female)
Testis
(male)
Figure 21.8g
Reproductive system:
produces gametes
and offspring
Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Oviduct
Vas deferens
Ovary
Penis
Uterus
Urethra
Vagina
Testis
Figure 21.8h
Integumentary
system:
protects body
Hair
Skin
Nail
Figure 21.8i
Lymphatic and
immune system:
defends against
disease
Thymus
Spleen
Lymph
nodes
Lymphatic
vessels
Figure 21.8j
Nervous system:
processes sensory
information
and controls
responses
Brain
Sense organ
(ear)
Spinal cord
Nerves
Figure 21.8k
EXCHANGES WITH THE EXTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT
• Every organism is an open system, continuously exchanging
chemicals and energy with its surroundings to survive.
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• An animal’s size and shape affect how it exchanges energy and
materials with its surroundings.
• All living cells must be bathed in a watery solution so that
exchange of materials can occur.
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• The entire surface area of an amoeba is in contact with the
environment.
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Mouth
Gastrovascular
cavity
Exchange
Exchange
Exchange
(a) Single cell
(b) Two cell layers
Figure 21.9
Exchange
(a) Single cell
Figure 21.9a
• A hydra has a body wall only two cell layers thick.
• Both layers are bathed in pond water, enabling exchange with the
environment.
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Exchange
Gastrovascular
cavity
Exchange
(b) Two cell layers
Figure 21.9b
• Animals with complex body forms face the same basic problems.
Every cell must:
– Be bathed in fluid
– Have access to essential nutrients from the outside environment
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• Complex animals have extensively folded or branched internal
surfaces that maximize surface area for exchange with the
environment.
• Lungs:
– Have a very large total surface area
– Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with the air
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Figure 21.10
• Animals use three organ systems to exchange materials with the
external environment:
– Digestive
– Respiratory
– Urinary
• The circulatory system transports materials inside the body from
these exchange surfaces.
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Mouth
Food
CO2
O2
External environment
Animal
Respiratory
system
Digestive
system
Interstitial
fluid
Heart
Nutrients
Circulatory
system
Body cells
Urinary
system
Anus
Unabsorbed matter (feces)
Metabolic waste products (such as urine)
Figure 21.11
REGULATING THE INTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT
• Every living organism has the ability to respond to its
environment.
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Homeostasis
• Homeostasis is the body’s tendency to maintain relatively steady
conditions in the internal environment when the external
environment changes.
• The internal environment of vertebrates is the interstitial fluid,
which fills the spaces between cells.
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Animal’s internal
environment
External
environment
Homeostatic
mechanisms
Small internal
changes
Large external
changes
Figure 21.12
Negative and Positive Feedback
• Most mechanisms of homeostasis depend on a common principle
called negative feedback, in which the results of a process inhibit
that same process, such as a thermostat that turns off a heater
when room temperature rises to the set point.
Animation: Negative Feedback
Animation: Positive Feedback
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Response:
Heating
stops
Room
temperature
drops
Thermostat
(control center)
turns heater off
Stimulus:
Room temperature
is above set point
Set point:
Room temperature
20C (68F)
Room
temperature
rises
Stimulus:
Room temperature
is below set point
Response:
Heating
starts
Thermostat
(control center)
turns heater on
Figure 21.13
Response:
Heating
stops
Room
temperature
drops
Thermostat
(control center)
turns heater off
Stimulus:
Room temperature
is above set point
Set point:
Room temperature
20C (68F)
Figure 21.13a
Set point:
Room temperature
20C (68F)
Room
temperature
rises
Stimulus:
Room temperature
is below set point
Response:
Heating
starts
Thermostat
(control center)
turns heater on
Figure 21.13b
• Less common is positive feedback in which the results of a
process intensify that same process, such as uterine contractions
during childbirth.
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Thermoregulation
• Thermoregulation is the maintenance of internal body
temperature.
– Endotherms derive the majority of their body heat from their
metabolism.
– Ectotherms obtain body heat primarily by absorbing it from their
surroundings.
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• Humans have homeostatic mechanisms that aid in
thermoregulation, which:
– Cool or
– Heat the body
Blast Animation: Negative Feedback: Body Temperature
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Skin
Sweat
gland
Response:
1. Blood
vessels
dilate
2. Sweat is
produced
Control center
in brain activates
cooling mechanisms
Stimulus:
Body temperature
is above set point
Body
temperature
drops
Set point:
Body temperature near 37C (98.6F)
Body
temperature
rises
Stimulus:
Body temperature
is below set point
Skin
Response:
1. Blood vessels
constrict
2. Muscles shiver
3. Metabolic rate
increases
Control center
in brain activates
warming mechanisms
Figure 21.14
Skin
Sweat
gland
Response:
1. Blood
vessels
dilate
2. Sweat is
produced
Control center
in brain activates
cooling mechanisms
Stimulus:
Body temperature
is above set point
Body
temperature
drops
Set point:
Body temperature near 37C (98.6F)
Figure 21.14a
Set point:
Body temperature near 37C (98.6F)
Body
temperature
rises
Stimulus:
Body temperature
is below set point
Skin
Response:
1. Blood vessels
constrict
2. Muscles shiver
3. Metabolic rate
increases
Control center
in brain activates
warming mechanisms
Figure 21.14b
• Fever:
– Is an abnormally high internal body temperature
– Usually indicates an ongoing fight against infection
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The Process of Science:
How Does a Python Warm Her Eggs?
• Observation: A female Burmese python incubating eggs:
– Wraps her body around them
– Raises her body temperature
– Frequently contracts the muscles in her coils
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• Hypothesis: The muscle contractions elevate the snake’s body
temperature.
• Experiment: A python and her eggs were monitored to measure:
– The python’s muscle contractions
– Her oxygen uptake
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• Results: The python’s oxygen consumption increased:
– When the temperature in the chamber decreased and
– As she increased the rate of muscle contraction.
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O2 consumption (mL O2/hr) per kg
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
5
10
15
20
25
Contractions per minute
30
35
Figure 21.15
Osmoregulation
• Living cells depend on a precise balance of:
– Water
– Solutes
• Osmoregulation is the control of the gain or loss of:
– Water
– Dissolved solutes, such as salt
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• Osmoconformers:
– Have internal and external environments with similar water
concentrations
– Include most marine invertebrates
• Osmoregulators
– Actively regulate their water loss or gain
– Include freshwater animals, most marine vertebrates, and all land animals
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Osmocomformer
Osmoregulator
Figure 21.16
Homeostasis in the Urinary System
• The urinary system:
– Plays a central role in homeostasis
– Forms and excretes urine
– Regulates the amount of water and solutes in body fluids
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• In humans, the two kidneys:
– Are the main processing centers
– Contain many fine tubes called tubules
– Include an intricate network of capillaries
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• As blood circulates through the kidneys:
– A fraction of it is filtered
– Plasma enters the kidney tubules, forming filtrate
• Filtrate contains:
– Valuable substances that need to be reclaimed (such as water and glucose)
– Substances to be eliminated, such as urea
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• The human urinary system includes:
– The circulatory system
– The kidneys
– Nephrons, the functional units of the kidney
– The urinary bladder, where urine is stored
Animation: Nephron Introduction
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Renal artery (red) and
renal vein (blue)
Filter
Tubule
Branch of
renal artery
Kidney
Branch of
renal vein
Ureter
Urinary
bladder
Collecting
duct
To ureter
(c) A nephron and
collecting duct
Urethra
(a) Urinary system
Ureter
(b) Kidney
Figure 21.17
Renal artery (red) and
renal vein (blue)
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
(a) Urinary system
Figure 21.17a
Nephron
Ureter
(b) Kidney
Figure 21.17b
• Nephrons:
– Carry out the functions of the urinary system
– Consist of a tubule and its associated vessels
– Number more than a million in a kidney
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Filter
Tubule
Branch of
renal artery
Branch of
renal vein
Collecting
duct
To ureter
(c) A nephron and collecting duct
Figure 21.17c
• Nephrons perform four key functions:
– Filtration, forcing water and other small molecules from the blood to
form filtrate
– Reabsorption of water and valuable solutes back into the blood
– Secretion of certain substances, such as ions and drugs, into the filtrate
– Excretion of urine from the kidneys
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Animation: Bowman’s Capsule and Proximal Tubule
Animation: Collecting Duct
Animation: Effect of ADH
Blast Animation: How the Kidney Works
Animation: Loop of Henle and Distal Tubule
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Reabsorption
Filtration
Renal artery
Secretion
Filtrate
Renal vein
Capillaries
Tubule
Excretion
Urine
Figure 21.18
• Hormonal control of the nephrons allows the body to control its
internal concentration of:
– Water
– Dissolved molecules
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• Kidney failure can be caused by:
– Injury
– Illness
– Prolonged use of pain relievers, alcohol, or other drugs
• One option for treatment of kidney failure is dialysis, filtration of
blood by a machine.
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Line from artery
to apparatus
Pump
Line from
apparatus
to vein
Tubing made of a
selectively permeable
membrane
Dialyzing
solution
Fresh dialyzing Used dialyzing
solution
solution (with
urea and
excess salts)
Figure 21.19
Evolution Connection:
Adaptations for Thermoregulation
• Animals regulate their body temperatures using adaptations that
are:
– Anatomical
– Physiological, and / or
– Behavioral
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METHODS OF THERMOREGULATION
Anatomical Adaptations
Physiological Adaptations
Behavioral Adaptations
Fat
Hair
Panting
Bathing
Figure 21.20
Anatomical Adaptations
(such as hair, fat, and feathers)
Fat
Hair
Figure 21.20a
Physiological Adaptations
(such as panting, shivering, and sweating)
Panting
Figure 21.20b
Behavioral Adaptations
(such as bathing, basking,
hibernating, and migrating)
Bathing
Figure 21.20c
HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION OF ANIMALS
Level
Description
Cell
The basic unit of
all living organisms
Example
Muscle cell
Tissue
A collection of similar
cells that perform
a specific function
Cardiac muscle
Organ
Multiple tissues
forming a structure
that performs a
specific function
Heart
Organ system A team of organs that
work together
Circulatory system
Organism
A living being, which
depends on the coordination
of all structural levels for
homeostasis and survival
Person
Figure 21.UN01
HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION OF ANIMALS
Level
Description
Cell
The basic unit of
all living organisms
Example
Muscle cell
Figure 21.UN01a
HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION OF ANIMALS
Level
Description
Tissue
A collection of similar
cells that perform
a specific function
Example
Cardiac muscle
Figure 21.UN01b
HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION OF ANIMALS
Level
Description
Organ
Multiple tissues
forming a structure
that performs a
specific function
Example
Heart
Figure 21.UN01c
HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION OF ANIMALS
Level
Description
Organ
system
A team of organs that
work together
Example
Circulatory
system
Figure 21.UN01d
HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION OF ANIMALS
Level
Description
Organism
A living being, which
depends on the
coordination of all
structural levels for
homeostasis and
survival
Example
Person
Figure 21.UN01e
Muscle (contracts)
Connective
(supports organs)
Epithelial (covers
body surfaces and
organs)
Nervous (relays
and integrates
Information)
Figure 21.UN02
External
Internal
Homeostasis
Large changes
Small changes within an
acceptable range
Figure 21.UN03
Blood
Filtration
Water and small
molecules
enter the tubule.
Capillary
Tubule
Reabsorption
Water and valuable
solutes are returned
to the blood.
Secretion
Specific substances
are removed from
the blood.
Excretion
Urine exits the
body.
Urine
Figure 21.UN04