Transcript lecture_8_chapter_8

Vicarious Learning
Chapter 8
Introduction
Can an organism learn through observation of
another organism, which is known as vicarious?
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Thorndike (1898) found no evidence for observational
learning in cats. Operant learning better explained a
cat’s learning experience.
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Early vicarious learning experiments failed miserably,
leading to abandoning its study for 30 years.
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Albert Bandura reignited interest in studying vicarious
learning, which was used to treat behavior disorders.
Basic Procedures
Vicarious learning refers to a change in behavior
that is due to the experience of observing a model.
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This type of learning sometimes is referred to as
observational learning.
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A monkey learns how to find a raisin under a cup
by watching another monkey engage in the task.
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A dog learns how to open a screen door by
watching another dog engage in the behavior.
Vicarious Pavlovian Conditioning
There is evidence to suggest that organisms can
learn behavior through vicarious Pavlovian
conditioning.
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Barnett and Benedetti (1960) found that fear of a buzzer (CS)
can be vicariously conditioned, although it may have been
higher-order conditioning, not vicarious learning.
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The Venn and Short (1973) experiment clearly demonstrates
that, in reference to vicarious Pavlovian conditioning,
classical conditioning, and not vicarious learning, occurred.
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There is limited current evidence for vicarious Pavlovian
conditioning.
Vicarious Operant Learning
Empirical evidence shows that an animal can
benefit from observing the consequences of a
model’s behavior during operant learning.
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Carl Warden (1940) was the first to demonstrate vicarious
operant learning using monkeys.
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Vicarious operant learning has been supported using
human children (Rosekrans & Hartup, 1967).
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This type of learning also has been demonstrated using
adult humans (Kanfer & Marston, 1963).
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Could this be why some people tend to become aggressive
after sporting events?
Vicarious Learning Versus Imitation
Vicarious learning is not necessarily imitation.
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An observer may behave identically to a model (imitation).
Imitating unsuccessful behavior is not vicarious learning.
Generalized imitation refers to the general
tendency to imitate modeled successful behavior
(even when the behavior is not reinforced).
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Fiorito and Scotto (1992) found that octopi would model
behavior that was NOT reinforced. Why?
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The non-reinforced behavior is imitated because of its relation
to other reinforced behaviors (Baer & Sherman, 1964).
Variables Affecting Vicarious Learning
A variety of variables have an impact on the success
of the vicarious learning procedure:
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Consequences of the model’s behavior –The
consequence must completely be contingent on behavior.
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Consequences of the observer’s behavior – Despite
whether the model’s behavior is successful, the observer’s
behavior must be successful for it to be repeated.
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Emotional state of the observer (as arousal increases,
learning tends to decrease) and task complexity determines
success (easier tasks tend to be learned more easily).
Variables Affecting Vicarious Learning
Characteristics of the model – Humans tend to model another’s
behavior more successfully when the model is likable, attractive,
competent, and prestigious. Observers also are more likely to
imitate a model if their physical characteristics are highly salient,
which is evident with regard to celebrities.
Observer’s age – Vicarious learning has different effects
depending on the age of the observer. Younger observers are
more likely to imitate, while older observers are more effective at
observational learning.
Observer’s learning history – If a child’s aggressive behavior
has been reinforced previously, they are more likely to imitate or
model aggression.
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
According to Albert Bandura, vicarious learning is
accounted for by four processes that occur during or
shortly after observation:
Attentional processes – Degree to which the observer
pays attention to the model (the greater the better!).
Retentional processes – Acts performed by the
observer to help to recall the model’s behavior. These
may include constant motor repetition of the behavior or
a verbal representation of the behavior (in humans).
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Motor reproductive processes – You must be skilled at
the behavior being modeled.
Motivational processes – The organism must believe
that modeling or imitating the behavior will lead to
reinforcement.
The theory, although intuitive, is not without problems. It
fails to account for learning histories and animals do not
engage in retentional processes (only humans). These
problems led to the Miller-Dollard reinforcement theory.
Miller-Dollard Reinforcement Theory
The theory suggests that vicarious learning
simply is a variant of operant conditioning.
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Accordingly, changes in the observer’s behavior are due to
the observer receiving consequences, not due to observing a
model receive consequences.
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Children will learn not to imitate a model to receive
reinforcement.
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A serious problem with the theory is that observer imitation
often occurs without reinforcement. However, generalized
imitation appears to account for this phenomena.
Foraging Behavior
Research suggests that foraging behavior (the act of
looking for food) largely involves vicarious learning.
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Fisher and Hinde (1949) found that, through imitation of other
birds, hummingbirds stole milk off of people’s porches.
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Sherry and Galef (1984) scientifically supported the presence
of vicarious learning in black-capped chickadees.
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Kuo (1930) found that cats would only kill rats if they had
seen their mother engage in the behavior.
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It seems that certain behaviors considered to be innate may
be due to vicarious learning.
Crime and Television
Bandura (1973) suggested that criminal behavior
is influenced powerfully by the observation of
criminal models, which is prevalent on TV.
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People are unlikely to engage in criminal behavior when the
criminal model has not been reinforced.
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Larsen (1968) found that in programs intended for children,
TV characters achieved their goals criminally 56% of the time.
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Bandura (1963) confirmed that there is a link between
television viewing and criminal behavior.
Therapy for Phobia
Vicarious learning procedures have been used to
treat a variety of behavior problems, such as phobia.
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One method used is to allow a fearful subject to watch
a model engage with the feared object without
experiencing distress.
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Jones (1924) was the first person to use this procedure
called “method of social imitation.”
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However, sometimes this method can backfire, which
is what happened in the case of Vincent.
Therapy for Phobia
Due to the problems with the previous method,
Bandura and Menlove (1968) decided to use
film/video to display the non-fearful model.
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Bandura and Menlove (1968) used films to eliminate
children’s phobia of dogs.
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Participant modeling combines modeling with
counterconditioning.
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It is impossible to know the extent of impact that vicarious
methods have on learning compared to other methods,
such as Pavlovian conditioning. However, it is arguable
that humans largely learn using vicarious methods.