Transcript Important Names To Know

AP Psychology

Identify the major historical figures in
psychology (e.g., Mary Whiton Calkins,
Charles Darwin, Dorothea Dix, Sigmund
Freud, G . Stanley Hall, William James, Ivan
Pavlov, Jean Piaget, Carl Rogers, B . F .
Skinner, Margaret Floy Washburn, John B .
Watson, Wilhelm Wundt) .





Mary Calkins -first woman to become president of
the American Psychological Association.
Charles Darwin -all species of life have descended
over time from common ancestry, and proposed the
scientific theory that this branching pattern of
evolution resulted from a process that he called
natural selection
Dorthea Dix -American activist on behalf of the
indigent insane who created the first generation of
American mental asylums.
Stanley Hall -first president of the American
Psychological Association
Margaret Washburn - first woman to be granted a
PhD in psychology (1894).

Willhelm Wundt
◦ Set up the first psychological laboratory in an
apartment near the university at Leipzig, Germany
◦ Theory of structuralism - theory of introspection --- goal was to break down consciousness into its
fundamental parts.

William James
◦ Methods, Approaches, and History
◦ Published The Principles of Psychology, psychology's first
textbook
◦ Functionalism



First American psychologist
Author of the first psychology textbook
Founder of Functionalism
◦ The study of the mind as it functions in adapting the organism to its
environment.
◦ Provided objective description of behavior



Sigmund Freud
Personality and States of Consciousness
Psychosexual stage theory of personality
(oral, anal, phallic, and adult genital)
◦ Stressed importance of unconscious and sexual
drive
◦ Psychoanalytic theory (Oedipus complex,
identification, fixate
◦ Theory of dreaming

Paul Broca
◦ Broca’s area – expressive language

Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga – split
brain studies
◦ Cut the corpus callosum to minimize epileptic
seizures
◦ Brain Specialization: Right vs. Left Hemisphere
 Language center in the left hemisphere

Carl Wernicke
◦ Wernicke’s Area – language comprehension

Hidden Observer - a person undergoing
hypnosis to manage pain, for example, feels
no conscious pain.
◦ That does not mean the pain is not there, however;
nor does it mean that the patient's subconscious is
not registering the pain.
◦ In one experiment, subjects were hypnotized and
told they would feel no pain or discomfort when an
arm was placed in ice water, or when a tourniquet
was tied at the elbow to restrict blood flow to the
arm. The subjects reported no pain or discomfort
during these procedures.

David Hubel and Torstein Wiesel
◦ Discovered feature detectors, groups of neurons in
the visual cortex that respond to different types of
visual images


Zone of Proximal Development: the distance
between what a child can do on his/her own
and what the child can complete with adult
assistance.
Children first learn by imitating adults. In the
beginning, children are unable to complete a
particular task without assistance. Overtime,
this child may be able to complete more
complex tasks with adult assistance. The
distinction between these two examples
above is coined the ZPD.
Issue
Nature/Nurture
Continuity/Stages
Stability/Change
Details
How do genetic inheritance
(our nature) and experience
(the nurture we receive)
influence our behavior?
Is developmental a gradual,
continuous process or a
sequence of separate stages?
Do our early personality
traits persist through life, or
do we become different
persons as we age.
15
Like bodily contact, familiarity is another factor
that causes attachment. In some animals
(goslings), imprinting is the cause of
attachment.
Alastair Miller

Developmental Psychology
◦ Stage theory of cognitive development
(sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations,
and formal operations)
◦ Assimilation / Accommodation
◦ Object Permanence
◦ Theory of Mind -the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires,
pretending, knowledge, etc.—to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs,
desires and intentions that are different from one's own
◦ Egocentric
◦ Stranger anxiety
Egocentrism: They
cannot perceive things
from another’s point of
view. :
Irreversibility: Inability to
think through a series of
events or mental
operations and then
reverse the steps.
Animistic Thinking: Inanimate objects
are imagined to have life and mental
processes.
Centration: Involves the inability to
take into account more than on
factor at a time.
 Baumrind’s
three main parenting styles
◦ Authoritarian parenting
◦ Permissive parenting
◦ Authoritative parenting

Developmental Psychology
◦ Psychosocial stage theory of development (eight
stages)
◦ Neo-Freudian
1.
2.
3.
Preconventional Morality:
Before age 9, children show
morality to avoid punishment
or gain reward.
Conventional Morality: By
early adolescence, social rules
and laws are upheld for their
own sake.
Postconventional Morality:
Affirms people’s agreed-upon
rights or follows personally
perceived ethical principles.
22


Challenged the university of Kohlberg’s
moral development theory
Asserted that women have differing moral
and psychological tendencies than men.
According to Gilligan, men think in terms of
rules and justice and women are more
inclined to think in terms of caring and
relationships.



Developmental Psychology
Placed human infants into a “strange
situation” in order to examine attachment to
parents
Key Terms: secure/ ambivalent/ avoidant
attachment
Securely attached children exhibit distress when separated from
caregivers and are happy when their caregiver returns. Remember, these
children feel secure and able to depend on their adult caregivers. When
the adult leaves, the child may be upset but he or she feels assured that
the parent or caregiver will return. When frightened, securely attached
children will seek comfort from caregivers. These children know their
parent or caregiver will provide comfort and reassurance, so they are
comfortable seeking them out in times of need.
Ambivalently attached children usually become very distressed when a
parent leaves. This attachment style is considered relatively uncommon,
affecting an estimated 7-15% of U.S. children. Research suggests that
ambivalent attachment is a result of poor maternal availability. These
children cannot depend on their mother (or caregiver) to be there when
the child is in need.
Children with an avoidant attachment tend to avoid parents or
caregivers. When offered a choice, these children will show no
preference between a caregiver and a complete stranger. Research has
suggested that this attachment style might be a result of abusive or
neglectful caregivers. Children who are punished for relying on a
caregiver will learn to avoid seeking help in the future.

Developmental Psychology
◦ Experimented with infant monkeys and attachment
◦ Body contact
◦ Attachment
 Critical period
 Imprinting
Harlow Primate Laboratory, University of Wisconsin
• Harlow (1971)
showed that
infants bond with
surrogate
mothers because
of bodily contact
and not because
of nourishment.
27
◦ Operant conditioning
 Invented Skinner box
 Shaping – reward through successive approximations
 Positive reinforcer / negative reinforcer
 Primary reinforcers / conditioned reinforcers
 Immediate and delayed reinforcers
 Continuous / partial reinforcement
Fixed
Variable
Ratio
Reinforced after a specific number Reinforced after an
of actions
unspecified number
of actions
Interval
Reinforcement contingent on
specific time
Reinforcement based
on an average time
lapse.

Learning
◦ Classical conditioning studies with
dogs and salivation
◦ UCS / UCR
◦ CS / CR
◦ Acquisition / Extinction /
discrimination / generalization /
spontaneous recovery


Learning
Pavlov's account, the contiguity model, states
that conditioning occurs when two events are
presented closely in time
◦ Revised the Pavlovian contiguity model of classical
conditioning
◦ When two significant events occur close together in
time, an animal learns the predictability of the
second event.
◦ THOUGHTS COUNT!




Learning Each species predispositions prepare it to
learn the associations that enhance its
survival.
Challenged the notion that any association
can be learned equally well.
Taste Aversions – biologically predisposed to
learn associations.

Learning
◦ Father of behaviorism
◦ Baby Albert experiment- classically
conditioned fear
◦ UCS – Loud Noise --------UCR- Fear
◦ CS --- Bell -------------CR - Fear


Learning and Personality – BOBO DOLL STUDY
Social-learning theory (modeling)
◦ Reciprocal determinism (triadic reciprocally)
 Interactions of persons, and their situations.
◦ Self-efficacy - roughly corresponding to a person's
belief in their own competence
◦ Observational Learning
 Mirror neurons

Learning
◦ Experimented with latent learning
◦ Found that sometimes learning occurs but is not
immediately evidenced
 Rats exploring a maze will create a cognitive map
(mental representation). When a reward is place in the
maze; the rat will immediately find it.

Cognition
◦ Experimented with the nature of sensory memory
 Iconic memory – research showed a fleeting
photographic memory
 Echoic memory


Memory Reconstruction
Implanted “false memories”
◦ Demonstrated the problems with eyewitness
testimony and constructive memory
 Misinformation effect - incorporating misleading
information into one’s memory of an event
 “how fast were the cars going when they:
 Hit / smashed?”


Effortful processing
Amount remembered depends on the time
spent learning.
◦ Additional rehearsal (over learning) increases
retention.
◦ Spacing effect
◦ Serial position effect

The linguistic relativity hypothesis –
“language itself shapes a man’s basic ideas’”

Tested eidetic memory - the ability to recall
images, sounds, or objects in memory with
extreme precision and in abundant volume.

Theorized the critical-period hypothesis for
language acquisition
◦ Language acquisition device: biologically organized
mental structure in the brain that facilitates the
learning of language because it is innately
programmed with some of the fundamental rules of
grammar.



Mental Age - a measure of intelligence test
performance devised by Binet
◦ chronological age that most typically corresponds to a
given level of performance
◦ child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to
have a mental age of 8
Binet himself did not believe that his psychometric
instruments could be used to measure a single, permanent
and inborn level of intelligence (Kamin, 1995).
stressed the limitations of the test,
◦ intelligence is far too broad a concept to quantify with a single number.

he insisted that intelligence is influenced by a number of factors, changes over time and can
only be compared among children with similar backgrounds



Stanford University psychologist:
Believed that intelligence was inherited.
◦ Revised to make the Stanford-Binet – help
guide people toward appropriate
opportunities
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
◦ defined originally the ratio of mental age (ma) to
chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100
 IQ = ma/ca x 100)
◦ on contemporary tests it produces a mental ability
score based on the test taker’s performance relative to
the average performance of others the same age.
Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters
that can be analyzed by factor analysis.
For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on
paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal
intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor, or a reasoning
ability factor.
46
• Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences
and speculates about a ninth one — existential
intelligence.
• Points to Savant
syndrome as
evidence.
• Makes concept of
intelligence very
broad (vs.
Spearman's g factor)
Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) also agrees with Gardner, but suggests three
intelligences rather than eight.
1.
2.
3.
Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed
by intelligence tests.
Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us
adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas.
Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required
for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).
48
Wechsler developed the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and
later the Wechsler Intelligence Scale
for Children (WISC), an intelligence test
for preschoolers.
Scores based on standardization
scores that are re-normed.
49

Accepted Freud’s basic ideas: the personality
structures of the id, ego, superego; the importance
of the unconscious; the shaping of personality in
childhood; the dynamics of anxiety and the defense
mechanisms
◦ Placed more emphasis on the conscious mind’s role
◦ Sex and aggression were not all consuming motivators



Alfred Adler – inferiority complex
Karen Horney – childhood social experience, not
sexual is important.
Carl Jung – collective unconscious – reservoir of
images derived from our species’ universal
experiences.

A feeling that one is inferior to others
in some way.
◦ Such feelings can arise from an
imagined or actual inferiority in the
afflicted person. It is often
subconscious, and is thought to
drive afflicted individuals to
overcompensate.

Type A / Type B personalities
◦ In their study 257 men had suffered heart attacks
(69% where type A personalities). Not one pure
type B suffered a heart attack.

Locus of control
◦ Internal / external (Julian B Rotter)
◦ high internal locus of control believe that events
result primarily from their own behavior and
actions. Those with a low internal locus of control
believe that powerful others, fate, or chance
primarily determine events.

Leader of Positive Psychology Movement –
focus on strength and virtue of human
beings.

It adopts a holistic approach to human
existence through investigations of meaning,
values, freedom, tragedy, personal
responsibility, human potential, spirituality,
and self-actualization


“Mother of Behavior Therapy”
Jones treated a child’s fear of a white rabbit
by “direct conditioning,”
◦ a pleasant stimulus (food) was associated with the
rabbit.

As the rabbit was gradually brought closer to
him in the presence of his favorite food, Peter
grew more tolerant, and was able to touch it
without fear


Developed different reciprocal inhibition techniques,
utilizing assertiveness training. Reciprocal inhibition
led to his discovery of systematic desensitization.
Reciprocal inhibition can be defined as anxiety being
inhibited by a feeling or response that is not
compatible with the feeling of anxiety.
◦ Wolpe first started using eating as a response to inhibited
anxiety in the laboratory cats. He would offer them food
while presenting a conditioned fear stimulus.

After his experiments in the laboratory he applied
reciprocal inhibition to his clients in the form of
assertiveness training.
◦ The idea behind assertiveness training was that you could
not be angry or aggressive while simultaneously anxious at
same time. Importantly, Wolpe believed that these
techniques would lessen the anxiety producing association.

Albert Ellis
Negative emotions arise from
people’s irrational
interpretations of
experiences
Musterbations

Awfulizing


◦ irrational belief that you must
do or have something
◦ mental exaggeration of setbacks

A = activating event in the environment
B = belief triggered in client’s mind by event
C = emotional consequence of the belief
Loss of job
I’m
worthless
Depression
My boss
is a jerk
No
Depression
Healthy Pattern
Loss of job


Cognitive Therapy – gentle questioning that
aims to help people discover their
irrationalities.
Assumption is that psychological problems
arise from erroneous thinking.



Sigmund Freud - Psychoanalysis
 Freud believed the patient’s free associations, resistances,
dreams, and transferences – and the therapist’s
interpretations of them – released previously repressed
feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight
 use has rapidly decreased in recent years
Resistance
 blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material
Transference
◦ patient’s unconscious feelings about person in their life
experienced as feelings toward therapist

Treatment of Psychological Disorders and
Personality
◦ Humanistic psychology- person centered therapy
and unconditional positive regard
◦ Self theory of personality – “Who am I?”

Fundamental attribution theory
◦ Overestimating people’s personality and
underemphasizing situational variables.

Social Psychology
◦ Obedience studies- participants think they are
shocking a leader
◦ 65% of “teachers” fully complied.
 Highest when:




Person giving orders was close
Supported by a prestigious institution
Victim was depersonalized
There were no role models


Role-playing affects attitudes
The Stanford Prison ended after only six days
due to emotional trauma being experienced
by the participants. The students quickly
began acting out their roles, with "guards"
becoming sadistic and "prisoners" showing
extreme passivity and depression.

Cognitive Dissonance
◦ We often bring our attitudes into line with our
actions. We reduce discomfort we fee when two of
our thoughts are inconsistent.

Social Psychology
◦ Asch Effect – a form of conformity in which a group
majority influences individual judgments.

Conformity experiment- people incorrectly
reported lengths of lines
◦ Impression formation study- professor was warm
or cold
◦ Normative social influence
◦ Informational social influence.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
One is made to feel incompetent or insecure.
The group has at least three people.
The group is unanimous.
One admires the group’s status and
attractiveness.
One has no prior commitment or response.
The group observes one’s behavior.
One’s culture strongly encourages respect for a
social standard.
Normative Social Influence: Influence
resulting from a person’s desire to gain
approval or avoid rejection. A person may
respect normative behavior because there
may be a severe price to pay if not respected.
Informative Social Influence: The group may
provide valuable information, but stubborn
people will never listen to others.
Identify key contributors in the psychology of motivation
and emotion (e.g., William James, Alfred Kinsey, Abraham
Maslow, Stanley Schachter, Hans Selye) .

Your heart begins to pound as you
experience fear; one does not cause the
other.

Emotions
◦ Your feeling of fear followed your body’s response


Motivation and Emotion
Two-factor theory for emotion
◦ Emotions have two ingredients:
 Physical arousal and a cognitive label


Universal facial expressions.
7 basic emotions: sad, fear, anger, disgust,
contempt, happy, surprise.
◦ Display rules – differences across cultures in both
context and intensity of emotional displays.

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
◦ Three phases of stress:
 1. Alarm – stressor occurs
 2. Resistance – cope with stressors
 3. exhaustion – reserved depleted.
 Biological implications – DNA pieces called telomeres of
stressed women ultimately dies; helps explain why
stressed people over time age more.