Transcript CH44上網
Part VII Principle of Ecology 張永達 ftp://140.122.143.143/ada z 種桑長江邊 枝葉始欲茂 柯葉自摧折 春蠶既無食 本不值高原 三年望當採 忽值山河改 根株浮滄海 寒衣欲誰待 今日復何悔 陶淵明(365-427) z Gaia Hypothesis: 地球之溫度及 化學組成受地球上所有生物總體 之調節並保持 動態平衡 CH 44 Behavior Ecology Fig. 49-1, p.898 Impacts, Issues My Pheromones Made Me Do It z Africanized honeybees have an aggressive response to alarm pheromones – signal molecules that affect others of the same species Isopentyl acetate 44.1 Behavior’s genetics 住海邊之garter snake喜食 蛞蝓 Banana slug (蛞蝓) 住內陸之garter snake喜食 蝌蚪&小魚 Garter snake 雜交後代偏好介於二者之 間 小蛇已經對banana slug之 組織液有反應 食物的偏好，源自地理隔離，對味覺和嗅覺基因天擇的結果。 Fig. 49.2, p. 900 Studying Variation Within a Species z Garter snakes and food preferences y Coastal garter snakes prefer to eat banana slugs y Inland garter snakes ignore banana slugs y Hybrids have an intermediate response z Inland snakes lack a genetically determined ability to associate the scent of slugs with food Genes and Behavior z Nervous system y Sensory z Hormones y Melatonin secretion pineal gland(松果腺) y Seasonal 光抑制Melatonin分泌 y Estrogen z Instinctive(本能的) y Behavior not learned y Cues in environment y “Sign stimuli” y Fixed action pattern（FAP） Studying Variation Within a Species z Foraging behavior in fruit flies y 70% of wild fruit flies are “rovers” （流浪、漫 遊者）, 30% “sitters” （就座者（）） y Genotype at the foraging (for) gene determines whether a fly is a rover (FF or Ff) or a sitter (ff) y The for gene encodes an enzyme (PKG) （a cGMP-dependent protein kinase） active in intercellular signaling pathways y Learning and memory are also affected Foraging Behavior in Fruit Flies Oxytocin is the hormonal key that unlocks the female’s heart Oxytocin receptor for female Antidiuretic hormone ADH receptor for male(ex: medow vole male) Monogamous Brain oxytocin receptor promiscuous Fig. 49-3b, p.900 46.2 Learned Behavior z An animal processes and integrates information gained from experiences, and then uses it to vary or change responses to stimuli. Male marsh wren 鷦鷯 Fig. 49-7a, p.902 44.2 Instinct and Learning Behavior z Imprinting (印痕作用) z Classical conditioning (古典制約) z Operant conditioning (操作制約) Trial-and-error z Habituation (習慣) z Spatial or latent learning(空間或潛在的學習) z Insight learning (洞察學習) 44.2 Instinct and Learning Behavior z Instinctive behavior is an innate response to a specific and usually simple stimulus z Ex: coastal garter snake behaves instinctively when it attacks a banana slug. A male fruit fly instinctively waves its wings during courtship of a female. z Learned behavior is behavior that is altered by experience. 44.2 Instinct and Learning Behavior—time sensitive learning z Instinctive behavior is an innate response to a specific and usually simple stimulus z Ex: coastal garter snake behaves instinctively when it attacks a banana slug. A male fruit fly instinctively waves its wings during courtship of a female. Instinctive behavior (本能的行為) Social parasite---布穀 鳥出生後，閉著眼睛 推出巢中蛋。 Fig. 44.5, p.784 Imprinting 印痕作用 1. 學習時間(幼年期)--- sensitive period 2. 由訊號刺激誘發 3. 例如幼鵝隨著人游泳, white-crown sparrow 學唱歌— 10-50 days Fig. 47.7, p. 836 Other types of learned Behavior z Habituation: an animal learns by experience not to respond to a stimulus that has neither positive nor negative effects. z Landmarks learning：to form a sort of mental map. This map may be put to use when the animal needs to return home. Ex: fiddler crab(提琴蟹)遇攻擊時，可以由10公尺外直接回巢穴。 z Social landscape learning: learn to recognize mates, offspring, or competitors by appearance, calls odor, or some combination of cues. z Observational learning: an animal imitates the behaveor of another individual. Observational Learning z Observational learning y One animal imitates the behavior of another y Example: Marmoset（狨猴） opening a container Physical and Social Recognition z Animals learn landmarks in their environment, and recognize mates, offspring and competitors y Example: Once male lobsters have fought, the loser recognizes and avoids the winner 44.3 The Adaptive Value of Behavior z Natural selection 適者生存，不適者淘汰。一群具有不同遺 傳特質的個體(包括行為)，由於生殖上的 差異，使得具有某些特質的個體，其存活 與生殖的機會增加。 wild carrot An Evolutionary View of Behavior 燕八哥(starling) 燕八哥(starling)取新鮮wild carrot枝條 修飾其巢，Why ？ No 1. Camouflage 偽裝? No 2. Insulation 絕緣(保溫)? 3. 防蟲(preventing mite infestation)? Yes 實驗證據 Fig 46-2, Aromatic steroid 可以抑制mites性成熟 Decorating Behavior Starling Nest Fumigation of nests preventing mite infestation z A - No sprigs in nest from wild carrots z B - Sprigs in nest of wild carrots z Wild carrot sprigs reduce mite infestations 44.4 Communication Signals z Signals 化學的: 聲音的: 視覺的: 觸覺的: pheromones 唱歌 姿態變化,舞蹈 信天翁求偶，蜜 蜂跳舞告知蜜源 z Signaler and signal receivers z Composite signal 組合訊息 z Illegitimate signals 非法訊息 z Illegitimate receivers z Displays y Threat威脅 y Courtship求愛 y Tactile觸覺 Illegitimate signalers and receivers Male tungara frogs make two kinds of calls: simple and complex. Call means: “come on over” to female frogs, “dinner over here” to fringe-lipped bats(流海唇蝙蝠) Complex calls are more inviting to females but make it easier for bats to find the caller. A dog soliciting (請求) play behavior with a play bow. Canine 犬齒 Threat display Baboon狒狒 Albatross 信天翁 Courtship display Canine 犬齒 Threat display Baboon狒狒 Albatross 信天翁 Courtship display Dances of Honeybees z Tactile displays Round dance Waggle dance Fig. 49.10, p. 905 Round dance 蜜 源 近 巢 蜜 源 遠 離 Waggle dance >100m 腹部搖擺次數越多越快 --- 距離越近 Fig. 49.10, p. 905 Round dance 蜜 源 近 巢 蜜 源 遠 離 Waggle dance >100m 腹部搖擺次數與距離--150m>500m Illegitimate signalers & receivers z 非法收訊者 白蟻(termites), 接收到螞蟻(入侵者)之氣味, 出現有防禦反應行為。 z 非法發訊者 1. Assassin bugs(刺客甲蟲)將乾死的白蟻掛背 上, 以得其味, 便於獵白蟻。 2. 捕食性螢火蟲，雌蟲放出他種螢火蟲之回應訊 號, 吸引雄蟲來，捕食之。 z Ex: Male tunagara frog have simple and complicate signal Evolves of a communication signal z A communication signal evolves and persists only if it benefits both sender and receivers. 44.5 Mates, Offspring, and Reproductive Success z Sexual selection y Quality of mate z Mating(MVP minimal viable population) z Benefits of social groups y Cost-benefit approach y Cooperative predator avoidance y Selfish herd y Dominance hierarchies Sexual selection 雄hangingfly 抓了一隻 蛾moth,準備當“聘禮” nuptial present。這些種 類，雌蟲以禮物大小做 為選擇交配與否的標準 。吃約5分鐘開始交配， 禮物吃完交配結束。 松雞 Sage grouse 一夫多妻 Lek: 溝通表演的地方。 雄鳥尾羽豎起，大頸袋膨脹 起來，跳求偶舞給雌鳥看。 多雌選同雄故大部分雄鳥未 婚。， 雄美洲野牛 Sexual competition between male bison, which are fighting for access to a cluster of females. Parental care 護幼行為 Caspian terns裏海燕鷗 利(benefits): 增加繁殖成功率 弊(cost): 減少交配機會 Mammalian species in which males help care for the young tend to be monogamous，only about 5% Fig. 44-14 p.789 44.6 Living in Groups z 及早發現敵跡 z 共同抵抗天敵 z 共同護幼 z 有階級，避免不必要之傷害， 有時尚可撿便宜 用來描述行為演化的名詞定義 z Reproductive success 個體生出能夠存活的子代(而且具生殖力) z Behaviors y Adaptive: 可促進個體基因的繁殖，且維持或增加在下一代基因 頻率之行為 y Social: 同種個體間相互合作、相依存之行為 y Selfish: 只顧自己或後代安危，不顧其他個體或全體之行為 y Altruistic: 自我奉獻犧牲，對其他個體有利，對自己 產生後代不 利的行為 z Benefits of social groups y defense against predators y Improved feeding opportunities y Dominance hierarchies y Cost-benefit Cooperative predator avoidance --Social defensive behavior 麝香牛 有掠食者(例如狼)出現時，Musk-oxen (麝香牛)會 全體一致頭(角)朝外，面對著它們---嚇退入侵者， Fig. 49.14, p. 908 保護中央的幼牛。 Black-tail prairie dog 生長於東南非的小猴 Vervet monkeys, 海貓meerkats, 有 alarm calls 的行為 Fig. 49-14a, p.908 Cooperative predator avoidance --Social defensive behavior Australian sawfly caterpillars 纏聚在樹枝上，口中含著黃色 液滴(對大部分的動物是有毒 的)，以嚇退捕時者。當危險 過後，則會吞回該液滴。 5.6—4.1 Sawfly鋸蠅 毒液 Fig. 49.14, p. 908 The selfish herd z -- Bluegill sunfishes 翻車魚 z 競爭“safe” sites—at the center of the colony。 z The largest, most powerful males tend to claim central locations. 個體較小的雄魚在周圍，面對掠食者(例如 bass鱸魚) 。 Improved feeding opportunities Wolves cooperate in hunting, caring for young, and defending territory. Benefits are not distributed equally, only the highest ranking individuals, the alpha male and alpha female, breed Improved feeding opportunities z z z z z Increasing hunting success Behaviors learned by imitation Fend off scavengers Care for one another’s young Protect territory Dominance hierarchies 位 階 高 Appeasement(姑息) behavior between baboons. 為什麼會 為族群中比 較優秀的個 體，犧牲掉 它們生殖成 功的機會？ Fig. 47.17, p. 843 Why do subordinates stay in the group z Avoid injury and to remain in the group. z Not to survive alone z No Challenging a strong individual to invite injury or death z A chance to reproduce if it lives long enough or if a predator or old age removes dominant peers. z Some patient do indeed move up the social ladder that way. Why so few social species z Costs out outweigh benefits . z Invite parasites and contagious diseases. Costs of Living in Social Groups z Competition for food 競爭有限的資源---食物、空間 z Competition for mate 競爭交配機會 z Spread of contagious disease and parasites 容易傳染疾病&感染寄生蟲 z Risk of being killed or exploited 易被發現，幼體可能被攻擊性強的個體掠殺 (a pair of breeding herring gulls鯡魚鷗will cannibalize the eggs and even the chicks of their neighbors) Colony of royal penguins on Macquarie Island, between New Zealand and Antarctica. z Cannibalism z Infanticidal behavior. 44.7 Why sacrifice yourself? a. 犧牲可能是進入這族群的代價。 b. 個體可共同來對付捕食者的入侵，更勝於取得 生殖成功的機會。 c. 顯性優勢傾向減少社會內的攻擊性，而顯性的成 員會較次顯性的成員產下較多的後代，次顯性的 成員將有機會往上爬、假如它們耐心等待的話。 白蟻 (Termites) 1. 兵蟻(保護)與工蟻(養殖真菌)均是不孕的 2. 只有一隻蟻后負責生蛋與繁殖 A termite queen dwarfs her offspring and her mate, her body pumps out thousands of eggs a day Fig. 44-20 Territory 領域 z 動物為了居住、覓食和防禦同種其他個體 的入侵所建立的勢力範圍稱之。 naked mole-rats裸鼴鼠 z 生活於東非乾燥區域 z 25-300隻/clan 集團，其中只有一隻雌鼠負責 生殖，與1-3隻雄鼠交配，其餘鼠負責照顧 queen, kings, offsprings z Diggers: 挖洞做living room & waste-disposal centers. Loafers: 個體較大，對付predators. z DNA fingerprinting 證實highly inbred, helpers 與 helped 之genotypes相似度達90% ---支持indirect selection theory Indirect selection among the naked mole-rats 裸鼴鼠 Heterocephalus glaber This queen has twelve mammary glands, one female produce 28 pups Inbreeding might not even be necessary for mole-rat eusociality. Damaraland mole-rat Nonbreeding members of both sexes cooperatively assist one breeding pair. Even so, these fuzzy(有絨毛的) burrowers are not highly inbred Researchers are now searching for other factors. Evolution of Altruism 利他主義的演化 z Provide youth with prey z Defend feeding territories z Drive off intruders z Theory of Indirect Selection y William Hamilton y “Self - sacrifice genes” x Honeybees x Termites Theory of Indirect Selection z William Hamilton （theory of inclusive fitness） z “Self - sacrifice genes” z 透過幫助親戚的存活和生殖個體，能間接將它們 的基因遺傳下去 x Honeybees x Termites Siblings同胞兄弟姊妹 同胞兄弟姊妹(Siblings)之間遺傳相似度 = 親代與一個子代之相似度 = ½ 姪子與姪女和叔叔之間的遺傳相似度為 ¼ 故救2個姪子或姪女 = 救一個自己的後代 44.8 Human behavior z Infanticidal behavior z A female who mates with many males might protect her offspring by obscuring their paternity. z Chimpanzees and bonobos differ in a regulatory region near a gene that encodes ADH receptor. In voles, a longer sequence in this region correlates with more family-oriented behavior. In bonobo 360 base pair (like human). Female bonobo (Pan troglodytes 侏儒黑猩猩), bipedal(兩足), copulate facing their partner, sexually receptive at any time of year, They use sex as a means of strengthening social bonds. Fig. 49-20b, p.912 44-8 Human behavior z Examples of behavioral cues An autistic(自閉) child has significantly low levels of oxytocin in blood. Also gene for ADH receptor is shorter than normal. (This same sequence is shorter in chimpanzees than in bonobos and humans) Human behavior z People have trouble making social contacts is often associated with low oxytocin level. z Pheromone and woman’s menstrual cycle. z One chemical component in male sweat activates certain brain areas in women （can alter a woman’s （cortisol level）but not in most men. z In most mammals, pheromones bind to receptors in a vomeronasal organ(VNO)?? Human behavior z Infanticide behavior in human? （ unrelated male increases risk of death for an American child under age 2 by sixty times） z Parents kill their own offspring!! Why??( in Papua New Guinea in which about 40% of newborns were killed by parents.) Human behavior z Adoption y Redirection of behavior y Adoption(收養) of related children is greater than that of non-related ones y Perpetuation of genes ◆ 環境荷爾蒙 環境荷爾蒙即「外因內分泌干擾化學物質 （Environmental Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals）」或稱為「內分泌干擾物質 （Endocrine Disrupters） 。 ◆ 2-1環境荷爾蒙的定義 定義一：「對於無處理生物的內分泌系統，無論在生物 個體或其後代子孫任何階段，引起健康障礙性變化的外來 性物質」（1996年2月，歐洲委員會研討會）。 定義二：「環境中的內分泌攪亂化學物質（Endocrine Disrupter Substance,簡稱EDS），是對控制體內環境穩 定（自我恆久性）之維持、生殖、發展及（或）行動的自 然荷爾蒙，介入其生成、分泌、結合、輸送、作用或消滅 的外因性物質，和荷爾蒙分類同義，EDS不單指環境雌激 素，也包含對原來內分泌系統有任何壞影響的物質」 （1997年2月，美國環保署特別報告）。 定義三：「所謂外因性內分泌攪亂化學物質，是當被攝 入動物體內時，對體內原有正常荷爾蒙之作用產生影響的 外因性物質」（1997年7月，日本環境廳檢討合）。 在10多年前，英國國內某條河川中，找不到雄性的 魚類。同一時間，世界各地的生物學者也開始注意 到這個現像。在許多地方，雄性動物的比例過低， 就像突然的消失了一般。華盛頓世界資源研究所的 戴維斯博士，指出了男女出生兒的比率發生了顯著 的變化，全球的男嬰出生率正在逐年下滑，更引起 了全球的重視。另外，也有許多報告指出，女性的 發育速度正在逐漸加速，使得乳房發育、月經…等， 第二性徵出現的年齡逐漸降低。更糟糕的是，男性 精液中所含的精子數量也在逐漸減少當中(一九四 ○年時每西西精液平均精虫是一億一千二百萬個， 到了一九九○年已下降為六千六百萬個（若落到二 千萬以下即不易懷孕） )。而造成這些問題的原凶， 極有可能就是環境荷爾蒙。 ◆ 環境荷爾蒙的種類 目前已知約有七十種疑似具有荷爾 蒙作用的物質，其中四十種以上為農藥 成分，其餘為含氯化合物 (多氯聯苯、 戴奧辛等)、塑膠原料等。 ◆ 環境荷爾蒙的作用機制 一、類似性荷爾蒙的作用。 二、拮抗生物體荷爾蒙的作用。 三、中斷生物體內分泌荷爾蒙的合成與代 謝。 四、破壞生物體組織細胞荷爾蒙接受器的 合成與代謝。 ◆ 環境荷爾蒙的作用機制 拒用6號塑膠杯！ 1號：PET寶特瓶 2號：HDPE高密度聚乙烯 3號：PVC聚氯乙烯 4號：LDPE低密度聚乙烯 5號：PP聚丙烯 6號：PS聚丙乙烯，耐熱度60-70度，裝熱飲 料會產生毒素，燃燒時會釋放苯乙烯 愛 其 死嗟 ，夫 況， 人猿 也且 耶知 。有 母 ， 不 抱每子 皮夕即 跳必悲獵 擲寢鳴人 而皮而取 斃乃下母 。安，皮 。斂向 甚手子 者就鞭 ，制之 輒，， 已不毒 ，能傅 氣生矢母 絕，，黠 。灑伺， 乳母不 於間可 林射致 飲之， 子，獵 ，母人 灑度以 可， 馴閃 ，閃武 然可平 不觀產 離。猿 母猿， 。子猿 尤毛 奇若 ，金 性絲 金 絲 猿 宋 濂 In Conclusion z Animal behavior originates with genes that specify products required for the development and operation of different systems z A behavior performed without having been learned by actual experience is instinctive z Experiences can lead to variations or changes in responses In Conclusion z Behavior with a genetic basis is subject to evolution and natural selection z Members of the same species can create obstacles to one another’s reproductive success z Social groups require cooperative interdependency among individuals of a species In Conclusion z Chemical, visual, acoustical and tactile signals are components of communication displays z Costs and benefits of social life are reflected in the individual’s reproductive success z Social groups have costs as well as benefits In Conclusion z Altruistic behavior limits chances of reproduction by helping others of their social groups z Dominance in a social group forces subordinates to relinquish(放棄)resources z Genes associated with caring for relatives can be favored in some cases z developed by M. Roig Key Concepts (1) z Behavior refers to coordinated responses that an animal makes to stimuli (刺激) z Forms of behavior have a genetic basis z Certain behaviors are instinctive (本能的) and are triggered by sign stimuli z The nervous system can process and retain information used to vary or change behavioral responses Key Concepts (2) z Behavior has evolved by way of natural selection z Evolved modes of communication underlie social behavior z Having a social group has costs and benefits z Altruistic behavior (利他的行為)allows individuals to help others while sacrificing personal reproductive success 討論作業 z For billions of years, the only bright objects in the night sky were stars or the moon. Night-flying moths used them to navigate in a straight line. Today, the instinct to fly toward bright objects causes moths to exhaust themselves fluttering around streetlights and banging against brightly lit window-panes. This behavior is not adaptive. So why does it persis? 討論作業 z 靈長類生殖行為與雄性生殖器大小相關，雄大猩 猩(gorillas)的生殖器相對較小(450pounds male, may weigh about 1 ounce)，社會化，雌性個體 發情只有一雄體使其受孕。相對的，黑猩猩雄性 個體生殖器較大(100pounds male, may weigh about 4 ounce)雌性個體發情非只有一雄體使其 受 孕。男人比黑猩猩重，但生殖器約只有2 ounce，由此推論女性混交（promiscuity）及男 性競爭使女性受孕之情況與其他兩種生物相比如 何？