Transcript bergerls9e_lectureppt_ch02x

What Theories Do
Developmental theory
– Group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that
interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations
that have been made about human growth
– Framework for understanding how and why people
change as they grow older
What Theories Do
Central questions for you to consider…
1. Do early experiences-of breast feeding or attachment
or abuse- linger into adulthood, even if they seem to be
forgotten?
2. Does learning depend on specific encouragement,
punishment, and role models?
3. Do children develop moral principles, even if they are
not taught right from wrong?
4. Does culture guide behavior?
5. Is survival a basic instinct, underlying all personal or
social decisions?
What Theories Do
Theories
produce
hypotheses.
Theories
generate
discoveries.
Theories
offer
practical
guidance.
What Theories Do
Facts and norms
Norm: An average, or standard
measurement, calculated from
the measurements of many
individuals within a specific
group or population.
Theories are not facts—but
they allow us to question
norms, suggest hypotheses,
and provide guidance.
Backpacks or Bouquets?
Children worldwide are nervous on the
first day of school, but their coping
reflects implicit cultural theories.
Kindergarten girls in Kentucky bring
many supplies, while elementary children
in Russia bring flowers for their teachers.
Grand Theories
Theories
– Psychoanalytic
– Behavioral
– Cognitive
Characteristics
– Comprehensive
– Enduring
– Widely applied
Grand Theories
Psychoanalytic Theory
– Proposes that irrational,
unconscious drives and
motives, often originating in
childhood, underlie human
behavior
Freud (1856–1939)
– Proposes five
psychosexual stages
during which sensual
satisfaction is linked to
developmental needs and
conflicts.
– Suggests early conflict
resolution determines
personality patterns
– Personality has three parts:
id, ego, and superego
Freud at Work
In addition to being the world’s
first psychoanalyst, Sigmund
Freud was a prolific writer.
Odd or Common?
Freud
The oddity here is not the
biting toddler, but the old
leather suitcase, or perhaps
Freud’s interpretation of the
oral stage.
Everyone who knows
babies expects them to
mouth whatever they can.
Can you explain this
behavior using Freudian
theory?
Grand Theories
Psychoanalytic theory
Epigenetic Theory
– Stresses that genes and
biological impulses are
powerfully influenced by
the social environment
Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
– Described eight
developmental stages,
each characterized by a
challenging developmental
crisis
– Proposed five psychosocial
stages built on Freud's
theory, but added three
adult stages
If Erikson had published his theory
at age 73 (when this photograph
was taken) instead of in his 40s,
would he still have described his life
as a series of crises?
Grand Theories
These adolescents think they
are nonconformists, and their
short skirts, opaque tights, and
hairstyles are certainly unlike
those of their mothers or
grandmothers.
But they are similar to
adolescents everywhere during
each particular historical
period—seeking to establish
their own distinct identity.
Pink or Purple Hair
Comparison of Freud’s Psychosexual and
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Grand Theory
Three types of learning
• Behaviorism is called learning theory because it
emphasizes the learning process.
Grand Theories
Behaviorism
Conditioning
– Proposes that learning takes place through processes
by which responses become linked to particular
stimuli
Learning theory
– Focuses on observable behavior
– Describes the laws and processes by which behavior
is learned
Grand Theories
Behaviorism
– Argued that scientists
should examine only what
they could observe and
measure
– Proposed anything can be
learned with focus on
behavior
– No specific stages
proposed
John Watson (1878-1958)
– American psychologist
– One of earliest proponents
of behaviorism and
learning theory
Grand Theories
Behaviorism
Classical conditioning
– Demonstrates that
behaviors can be learned
by making an association
between an environmental
stimulus and a naturally
occurring stimulus
– Also called respondent
conditioning
Pavlov (1849-1936)
– Received the Nobel Prize
in 1904 for his digestive
processes research.
– Resulted in discovery of
classical conditioning
Grand Theories
Behaviorism
Operant conditioning
– Proposes that reinforcement or punishment may be
used to either increase or decrease the probability
that a behavior will occur again in the future
– Also called instrumental conditioning
Skinner (1904-1990)
– Agreed with Watson that psychology should focus on
the scientific study of behavior
– Was best known for experiments with rats, pigeons,
and his own daughter
Rats, Pigeons, and People
B. F. Skinner designed a glass-enclosed crib in which temperature,
humidity, and perceptual stimulation could be controlled to make
her time in the crib enjoyable and educational.
Grand Theories
Three Types of Learning: Behaviorism is also called learning theory
because it emphasizes the learning process, as shown here.
Grand Theories
Cognitive theory
Proposes thoughts and
expectations profoundly affect
actions, attitudes, beliefs and
assumptions
Focuses on changes in how
people think over time
Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
Would You Talk to This Man?
Children loved talking to Jean
Piaget, and he learned by listening
carefully—especially to their
incorrect explanations, which no
one had paid much attention to
before.
Maintained that cognitive
development occurs in four major
age-related periods, or stages
Intellectual advancement occurs
lifelong because humans seek
cognitive equilibrium
How to Think About Flowers
A person’s stage of cognitive growth influences how he or she thinks about
everything, including flowers.
Can you identify the Piagetian stage at which each person is thinking about
flowers?
Piaget
Cognitive theory
Assimilation
– Experiences are interpreted to
fit into, or assimilate with, old
ideas.
Accommodation
– Old ideas are restructured to
include, or accommodate,
new experiences.
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive Equilibrium
State of mental balance, no confusion
– New ideas through past ideas interpreted
– Needed for intellectual advancement
Easy equilibrium not always possible
– If new experience is not understandable,
cognitive disequilibrium can occur.
Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development
Grand Theories
Information processing theory
– Representative newer version of cognitive theory
– Compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to
computer analysis of data, including sensory input,
connections, stored memories, and output
We Try Harder
Details of brain scans require interpretation from neurologists, but even the
novice can see that adults who have been diagnosed with ADHD (second
line of images) reacted differently in this experiment when they were
required to push a button only if certain letters appeared on a screen.
Comparing Grand Theories
Criticism
– Many psychologists reject psychoanalytic theory as
unscientific.
– Others reject behaviorism as demeaning of human
potential
Contribution
– Both behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory have led
to hypotheses that have been examined in thousands
of experiments
Toilet Training--How and When?
Research findings
•
•
•
Behaviorist approach was best for older children with
serious disabilities
Almost no method seemed to result in marked
negative emotional consequences
Many sources explain that because each child is
different, there is no “right” way.
What is the goal?
Newer Theories
New theories
• Are multicultural
• Are multidisciplinary
• Are most closely tied to current view of science
of human development
• Include sociocultural theory and universal
theory
Newer Theories
Sociocultural theory
• Proposes thoughts and human development results from
the dynamic interaction between developing persons and
their surrounding society
• Focuses on culture as integral to a person’s
development
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
• Describes interaction between culture and education
• Developed concepts of apprenticeship in thinking and
guided participation
Newer Theories
Zone of proximal
development
– Skills, knowledge, and
concepts that learner
is close to acquiring
but cannot master
without help
Process of joint
construction
The intellectual excitement of that zone is
the origin of the joy that both instruction
and study can bring.
– New knowledge
obtained through
mentoring
Taking culture into account
Sociocultural perspective
– Is viewed not as something external that impinges on
developing persons but as integral to their
development every day via the social
– Influences inclusion of culture into contemporary
research
– Sheds new light on cultural differences in many
areas, including attachment, gender, and ethnic
prejudice
Universal
Perspective
Humanism
– Stresses the potential of all
human beings for good and
the belief that all people
have the same basic
needs, regardless of
culture, gender
Hope and Laughter
Maslow believed in the human spirit
and that it could overcome
oppression and reach selfactualization, where faith, hope, and
humor abound.
Abraham Maslow (1908–
1970)
– One of the founders of
humanism
– Arranged shared human
needs in hierarchy
– Contended that everyone
must satisfy each lower
level before moving higher
Moving Up, Not Looking Back
Universal Perspective
Evolutionary theory
– Integrates explanations for many issues in human
development
– Suggests humans have two long-standing biologically
based drives: survival and reproduction
– Proposes concept of selective adaptation
– Suggests genetic variations are particularly beneficial
when the environment changes and benefits
humanity as a whole
Selective Adaptation Illustrated
As you see, in 100 years, the “odd” gene becomes
more common than the normal one—a new normal
What Theories Contribute
•
•
•
•
•
Psychoanalytic theories
Behaviorism
Cognitive theories
Sociocultural theories
Universal theories
Can you identify the contributions of each of the
above theories?
Five Perspectives on Human Development
What Theories Contribute
Eclectic perspective
– Taken by most developmentalists
– Occurs when aspects of each of the various theories
of development are selectively applied, rather than
adhering exclusively to one theory
– Helps guard against bias and facilitates openmindedness to alternative explanations for complexity
of human life