Transcript Unit 10 Powerpoint

Development & Personality
Human Development
Basic Developmental Questions
Prenatal Development
The Remarkable Newborn
The Infant and Growing Child
Adolescence
Adulthood and Old Age
Basic Developmental
Questions
Developmental Psychology
–The study of how people grow, mature,
and change over the life span
Two
Major Ways to Conduct Research
–Cross-sectional Studies
People of different ages are tested and
compared
–Longitudinal Studies
The same people are tested at different
times to track changes related to age
Basic Developmental Question
Developmental Research
Strategies
Prenatal Development

Zygote
The Growing Fetus
– A fertilized egg that undergoes a two-week
period of rapid cell division and develops
into an embryo

Embryo
– The developing human organism, from two
weeks to two months after fertilization

Fetus
– The developing human organism, from nine
weeks after fertilization to birth
Prenatal Development
The Growing Fetus
Fertilization
30 Hours
6 weeks
4 months
Prenatal Development
The Growing Fetus:Teratogens

Toxic substances that can harm the embryo or
fetus during prenatal development
– Malnutrition
– Viral Infections
 AIDS, Rubella (German measles), and others
– X-rays, lead, and other environmental hazards
– Drugs
 Alcohol (fetal alcohol syndrome), Cigarettes,
Cocaine, Aspirin, Marijuana, and other drugs both
licit and illicit
The Remarkable Newborn
Ways to Study the Abilities of
Newborns
Habituation
–The tendency for attention to a stimulus to
wane over time (often used to determine
whether an infant has “learned” a stimulus
Recovery
–Following habituation to one stimulus, the
tendency for a second stimulus to arouse
new interest (often used to test whether
infants can discriminate between stimuli)
The Remarkable Newborn
Reflexes

Grasping Reflex
– In infants, an automatic tendency to grasp
an object that stimulates the palm

Rooting Reflex
– In response to contact on the cheek, an
infant’s tendency to turn toward the
stimulus and open its mouth
The Remarkable Newborn
Sensory Capacities
Visual Preferences in Newborns

Infants spend more time
looking at patterns than
solids.
 Infants spend the most
time looking at a
drawing of a human
face.
 Is this just preference for
complexity or an
adaptation?
The Remarkable Newborn
Sensory Capacities
Newborn Orientation to the Face

Infants were shown a blank
shape, a face, or scrambled
facial features.
– The face and scrambled face
have same complexity.

Infants looked more
intensely at the actual face.
The Remarkable Newborn
Sensory Capacities
Newborn Imitation

Babies sometimes mimic
gestures made by others
who are within sight.
– Sticking tongue out of
mouth
– Moving head side to side
The Remarkable Newborn
Sensitivity to Number
Can Infants Add and Subtract?

Infants saw a sequence
of events that illustrated
addition or subtraction.
 Then they saw a correct
or incorrect outcome
(2-1=2, for example).
 The infant looked
longer at outcomes that
were incorrect.
The Infant and Growing Child
Biological Development
The Developing Brain
The Infant and Growing Child
Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Theory

Schemas
– In Piaget’s theory, mental representations of
the world that guide the processes of
assimilation and accommodation
– Assimilation

The process of incorporating and, if necessary,
changing new information to fit existing schemas
– Accommodation
 The process of modifying existing schemas in
response to new information
The Infant and Growing Child
Cognitive Development
Changing Schemas of the Earth
5th grade

From preschool
through about the 5th
grade, children
gradually assimilate
and then accommodate
their schemas to form
an accurate
representation of the
earth’s shape.
Preschool
The Infant and Growing Child
Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Stages of Development

Stages of Development
– Each stage is qualitatively different from others
– Ages for stage transitions are approximate
– Sensorimotor
– Preoperational
– Concrete Operational
– Formal Operational
The Infant and Growing Child
Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Stages
The Infant and Growing Child
Cognitive Development
Separation Anxiety

Separation anxiety is a
fear reaction in response
to the absence of the
primary caregiver.
 It is seen in all cultures.
 It corresponds with the
development of object
permanence and the
sensorimotor stage of
cognitive development.
The Infant and Growing Child
Cognitive Development
Tasks Used to Test Conservation

The ability to conserve
marks the transition
from the preoperational
stage to the concrete
operational stage of
cognitive development.
The Infant and Growing Child
Cognitive Development
Speed of Inf. Processing


Response times decrease from 7 - 12 years of age
– Consistent across several different types of tasks
This may be due to the biological maturation of the brain
– Increased myelination of axons which speeds up neural
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
processing
©2004 Prentice Hall
The Infant and Growing Child
Social Development
The Parent-Child Relationship

Critical Period
– A period of time during which an organism
must be exposed to a certain stimulus for
proper development to occur

Attachment
– A deep emotional bond that an infant
develops with its primary caretaker
The Infant and Growing Child
Social Development
Styles of Attachment

Strange Situation Test
– A parent-infant “separation and reunion”
procedure that is staged in a laboratory to test the
security of a child’s attachment

Secure Attachment
– The baby is secure when the parent is present,
distressed by separation, and delighted by reunion.

Insecure Attachment
– The baby clings to the parent, cries at separation,
and reacts with anger or apathy to reunion.
Adolescence
Adolescence
–The period of life from puberty to
adulthood, corresponding roughly to the ages
of 13 to 20
Puberty
–The onset of adolescence, as evidence by
rapid growth, rising levels of sex hormones,
and sexual maturity
Menarche
–A girl’s first menstrual period
Adolescence: Puberty
Adolescent Growth Spurt

At about age 13 for girls, 16 for boys, there is a
final maturational growth spurt in height.
Adolescence: Puberty
The Timing of Puberty and Body Images
in Girls

Girls who mature
earlier than their
peers are usually
less satisfied with
their size, weight,
and figure.
Adolescence: Puberty
The Timing of Puberty and Body
Images in Boys

Boys who mature
later than their
peers have negative
body images, but
they are only
temporary.
Adolescence
Cognitive Development
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning

Moral Reasoning: The way people think
and try to solve moral dilemmas.
– Preconventional Level
 Morality judged in terms of reward and punishment
– Conventional Level
 Morality judged in terms of social order and approval
– Postconventional Level
 Morality judged in terms of abstract principles, like
equality and justice
Adolescence
Cognitive Development
Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Dev.

Most 7-10 year olds are
reasoning at the
preconventional level.
 Most 13-16 year olds are
reasoning at the
conventional level.
 Few participants show
reasoning indicative of
the postconventional
level.
Adolescence
Cognitive Development
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory

Cultural Bias
– Some cultural differences are not reflected in
this theory.

Gender Bias
– Empirical support for this claim is weak.

Connection between moral reasoning and
moral behavior is often indirect.
Adolescence
Social and Personal Development
Adolescent Disengagement



The proportion of time spent
with the family decreases
almost 3% per year
This decline was not found for
time spent alone with parents
Identity Crisis
– An adolescent’s struggle to
establish a personal
identity, or self-concept
Adolescence
Social and Personal Development
Patterns of Adolescent “Transformation”
Within the Family



Adolescents in the 7th and
8th grades felt worse
while with their family.
Boys feel better after 8th
grade and feel the best in
9th and 10th grades.
Girls continue to feel bad
until the 10th grade.
Adolescence
Social and Personal
Development

Peer Influences
– Adolescent relationships are intimate.
– Adolescents begin to discover friendships with
other-sex peers.
– Conformity rises steadily with age, peaks in
ninth grade, and then declines.
Adolescence
Social and Personal
Development

Sexuality
– Whether teens act on sexual impulses depends
on social factors.
– Adolescents who engage in sexual behavior
with others are not necessarily informed about
health risks and contraception .
– Adolescent sexual behavior may be due to
attempts to be more like an adult or as a way to
rebel.
Adolescence
Adolescence and Mental Health

The stereotypic images of adolescents are:
– Mood swings, identity crises, anxiety, rebelliousness,
depression, drug use, and suicide

Three perceived sources of difficulty in
adolescence are:
– Conflict with parents, risk-taking behavior, and mood
disruption

Conflict with parents and risk-taking do occur, but
the idea that adolescents are in a state of distress is
exaggerated.
Adulthood and Old Age
Physical Changes in Adulthood

Life Span
– The maximum age possible for members of a
given species.

Life Expectancy
– The number of years that an average
member of a species is expected to live.

Menopause
– The end of menstruation and fertility.
Adulthood and Old Age
Aging and Intellectual Functions

Memory and Forgetting
– Cognitive abilities do not inevitably decline.
– Some elderly may show declines on free-recall
tasks, however declines on tests of recognition
memory are less likely.
– Memory declines may be due to impairments in
sensory acuity and a slowing of neuronal
processing.
Adulthood and Old Age
Aging and Intellectual Functions
The Alzheimer’s Problem

Alzheimer’s Disease
–


A progressive brain
disorder that strikes
older people, causing
memory loss and other
symptoms.
In the U.S., the projected
number of Alzheimer’s
patients is 14 million in
2050.
The cost is at least $100
billion per year.
Adulthood and Old Age
Aging and Intellectual Functions
Age Trends in Intelligence

Fluid intelligence, which
includes inductive reasoning
and spatial ability, declines
steadily throughout middle
and late adulthood.

Crystallized intelligence,
which includes verbal
ability and numeric ability,
remains stable into the 70’s.
Adulthood and Old Age
Aging and Intellectual Functions
Timed vs. Untimed Vocabulary Tests


Some abilities are less affected by age than are others.
Scores declined only in the timed test.
Adulthood and Old Age
Social and Personal Development
Erikson’s Eight Stages of
Development - I

Trust vs. Mistrust
– Infancy (0-1 year)

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
– Toddler (1-2 years)

Initiative vs. Guilt
– Preschool (3-5 years)

Industry vs. Inferiority
– Elementary School (6-12 years)
Adulthood and Old Age
Social and Personal Development
Erikson’s Stages of Development - II

Identity vs. Role confusion
– Adolescence (13-19 years)

Intimacy vs. Isolation
– Young adulthood (20-40 years)

Generativity vs. Stagnation
– Middle adulthood (40-65 years)

Integrity vs. Despair
– Late adulthood (65 and older)
Adulthood and Old Age
Social and Personal Development
Life Satisfaction


In multiple
cultures, 75-80%
say they are
satisfied with life.
Ratings of life
satisfaction do not
vary with age.
Adulthood and Old Age
Social and Personal Dev.
Self-Esteem



Self-esteem is highest
in childhood.
It drops sharply during
adolescence.
It increases gradually
during adulthood,
peaks in the sixties,
and declines in old
age.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
©2004 Prentice Hall
Adulthood and Old Age
Dying and Death

Elisabeth Kübler-Ross proposed five stages in
approaching death:
–
–
–
–
–

Denial (“It must be a mistake.”)
Anger (“It isn’t fair!”)
Bargaining (“Let me live longer and I’ll be a better person.”)
Depression (“ I’ve lost everything important to me.”)
Acceptance (“What has to be, has to be.”)
Not everyone follows this sequence through the stages
and all people do not experience all stages.
Personality
Psychoanalysis
The Cognitive Social-Learning Approach
The Humanistic Approach
The Trait Approach
Personality

The word comes from the Latin persona,
meaning “mask.”
 Personality
– An individual’s distinct and relatively
enduring pattern of thoughts, feelings,
motives, and behaviors
Psychoanalysis
Freud’s Theory of Personality

Psychoanalysis
– Freud’s theory of personality
and method of psychotherapy,
both of which assume that our
motives are largely unconscious
Psychodynamics
Began in late 1800’s.
 Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) Vienna
 The idea for his theory is the unconscious.
 Unconscious – In Freudian theory, this is
the psychic domain of which the individual
is not aware but that is the storehouse of
repressed impulses, drives, and conflicts
unavailable to consciousness.

Psychodynamics

The actions of the unconscious are powered
by psychological energy—that is, by
motives, drives, and desires.
 Personality as the mental equivalent of
steam in a boiler.
 Mental steam = sexual activity
 The energy behind the drive is called libido.
Psychoanalysis
Freud’s Theory of Personality
The Structure of Personality
Psychoanalysis
Freud’s Theory of Personality
The Structure of Personality

Id: Operates according to the pleasure
principle
– Primitive and unconscious, hidden from view
– Contains basic drives
– Mostly sexual and aggressive drives

Ego: Operates according to the reality
principle
– Mediates the conflict between id and superego

Superego: Consists of moral ideals and
Psychoanalysis
The Structure of Personality

Pleasure Principle:
– In psychoanalysis, the id’s boundless drive
for immediate gratification

Reality Principle
– In psychoanalysis, the ego’s capacity to delay
gratification
Psychoanalysis
Psychosexual Development

Psychosexual Stages
– Freud’s stages of personality development
during which pleasure is derived from
different parts of the body
– Oral (the first year of life)
– Anal (ages 2-3)
– Phallic (ages 4-6)

When Oedipus complex and identification occur
– Latency period (ages 7-12)
– Genital (starting at puberty)
Oedipus Complex

According to Freud, a largely unconscious
process whereby boys displace an erotic
attraction toward their mother to females of
their own age and, at the same time, identify
with their fathers.
 Love their mother, hate their father, but
later love girls and identify with father.
Penis Envy

Girls are attracted to males because they
have a penis, according to Freud.
 Most psychologist believe this to be untrue.
Psychoanalysis
The Psychodynamics of
Personality

Unconscious
sexual and
aggressive urges
find acceptable
forms of
expression.
Psychoanalysis
The Dynamics of Personality

To minimize the anxiety due to the conflict
between the id and the superego, the ego uses
defense mechanisms.
– Unconscious methods of minimizing anxiety by
–
–
–
–
–
–
denying and distorting reality
Repression (forgetting)
Denial (ignoring)
Projection (attributing to others)
Reaction Formation (converting to its opposite)
Rationalization (making excuses)
Sublimation (channeling into acceptable outlets)
Psychoanalysis
The Dynamics of Personality
Denial – “I don’t have a problem” Avoids a
difficult situation by simply denying that it
exists.
 Examples: Child abusers, alcoholics

Psychoanalysis
The Dynamics of Personality
Rationalization – People using this defense
give socially acceptable reasons for
behavior that is unacceptable.
 Example – cheating on a test because
“everyone does it”

Psychoanalysis
The Dynamics of Personality
Reaction Formation – when people act in
the opposite of what they are feeling.
 Example: People who are homophobic,
might be repressing those desires.
 Bullies

Psychoanalysis
The Dynamics of Personality
Displacement – When your boss makes you
angry, you may later displace your anger by
yelling at your spouse or kicking your dog.
 Example – Having a bad day at school and
yelling at your mom.

Psychoanalysis
The Dynamics of Personality
Regression – Under stress, some people
hide; others cry, throw things, or even we
their pants. They adopt juvenile behavior to
deal with there stress.
 Example – throwing a tantrum when your
are in high school.

Psychoanalysis
The Dynamics of Personality
Repression – forgetting
 Example – most children who are sexual
molested do not remember the details in
adulthood.

Psychoanalysis
The Dynamics of Personality
Sublimation – Gratifying sexual or
aggressive desires in ways that are
acceptable in one’s culture.
 Example: sports, hot shower

Psychoanalysis
The Dynamics of Personality
Projection – When we are upset or aroused,
we may use this to attribute our own
unconscious desires to other people or
objects.
 Example – Blaming someone else for
something you did.

Psychoanalysis
Freud’s Legacy
Neo-Freudian Theorists

Carl Jung
– Proposed the idea of a Collective Unconscious
 A kind of memory bank that stores images and
ideas that humans have accumulated over the
course of evolution

Alfred Adler
– Proposed the idea of the inferiority complex
and the notion that social conflicts are
important in the development of personality.
Carl Jung
Split from Freud – believed he was too
focused on sex.
 Two part unconscious

– Collective unconscious – reservoir for
instinctive memories, including archetypes,
which exist in all people. (ancient images,
example the theme of love, beauty, etc.
– Personal unconscious – same as the id
Carl Jung
Archetypes – the ancient memory images in
the collective unconscious. Reappear in art,
literature, and folktales around the world.
 Mental disorders caused by not only
conflict in personal unconscious, but a
failure to acknowledge the archetypes we
find unacceptable in our collective
unconscious.

Alfred Adler:
Inferiority Complex – a feeling of
inferiority that is largely unconscious, with
its roots in childhood
 From this comes compensation – were the
person makes attempts to make up for these
deficiencies (real or imagined) in some way.
 Example: getting implants or making up a
new life that is interesting.

Psychoanalysis
Freud’s Legacy
Neo-Freudian Theorists

Later generations considered themselves
classical Freudians or expanded
psychoanalysis in two directions.
– One direction focused on social relationships.
– The other direction enlarged the role of the ego.
Psychoanalysis
Projective Personality Tests

Projective Tests
– Allow people to “project” unconscious needs,
wishes, and conflicts onto ambiguous stimuli
– Rorschach
 A test in which people are asked to report
what they see in a set of inkblots
– Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
 A test in which people are asked to make up
stories from a set of ambiguous pictures
Thematic Apperception Test

Sample Item
– Tell a story of what is
happening in the
picture
Psychoanalysis
Current Perspectives on
Psychoanalysis

There are three major criticisms of
psychoanalysis:
– The theory’s portrait of human nature is too
bleak.
– The theory does not meet acceptable scientific
standards.
– Research fails to support many of its
propositions.
Psychoanalysis
Current Perspectives on
Psychoanalysis

Two enduring aspects of the theory remain
influential:
– The view of the mind as an iceberg (i.e., the
importance of the unconscious).
– The analysis of defense mechanisms, which is
supported throughout psychology in studies of
attention, thinking, feeling, etc.
The Cognitive
Social-Learning Approach

Cognitive Social-Learning Theory
– An approach to personality that
focuses on social learning (modeling),
acquired cognitive factors
(expectancies, values), and the personsituation interaction
The Cognitive Social-Learning
Approach
Principles of Learning and Behavior

Classical Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
 Stimulus Generalization
 Discrimination
 Extinction
The Cognitive Social-Learning
Approach
Social-Learning
Theory
 Modeling
– The social-learning process by which behavior is
observed and imitated

Locus of Control
– The expectancy that one’s reinforcements are generally
controlled by internal or external factors

Self-Efficacy
– The belief that one is capable of performing the
behaviors required to produce a desired outcome
The Cognitive Social-Learning
Approach
Perspectives on Cognitive Social Learning
Theory Reciprocal Determinism

Personality emerges
from the mutual
interactions of
individuals, their
actions, and their
environments.
The Humanistic Approach

Humanistic Theory
– An approach to personality that
focuses on the self, subjective
experience, and the capacity for
fulfillment
The Humanistic Approach
The Personality Theory of Carl
Rogers
The Humanistic Approach
Rogers’ Theory

Unconditional Positive Regard
– The acceptance and love one receives from
significant others is unqualified

Conditional Positive Regard
– The acceptance and love one receives from
significant others is contingent upon one’s
behavior
The Humanistic Approach
Carl Rogers
Self-Esteem
– A positive or negative evaluation of the self

Self-Schemas
– Specific beliefs about the self that influence
how people interpret self-relevant
information
The Humanistic Approach
Self-Esteem
Self-Discrepancy Theory

According to this theory, self-esteem is defined by the
match between how we see ourselves and how we want
to see ourselves.
The Humanistic Approach
Abraham Maslow
The State of Self-Actualization

Csikszentmihalyi
studied this, based on
Maslow’s writings.
 A state of “flow”
arises when engaging
in activities
demanding skill and
challenge, but are not
too difficult.
Flow, The Optimal Experience
Gordon Allport

Trait/dispositional
theory – first in
humanistic
psychology.
 Three type of traits
– central,
secondary, and
cardinal.
Central – traits
form the basis of
personality
 Secondary –
preferences and
attitudes
 Cardinal –
components that
define people’s
lives

The Humanistic Approach
Perspectives on the Humanistic
Approach

Praise for the Humanistic Approach
– For the idea that people are inherently good
– For placing importance on conscious mental experience
– For the idea that the self-concept is the heart of
personality

Criticisms of the Humanistic Approach
– For taking people’s self-report statements at face value
– For being too optimistic about human nature and
ignoring human capacity for evil
The Trait Approach
The Building Blocks of
Personality
Trait
–A relatively stable predisposition to behave
in a certain way
Five-factor
Model
– A model of personality that consists of five
basic traits:
Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness,
Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness
Openness

Independence or closed-minded
 You are someone who is a leader or a
follower.
Conscientiousness

Dependability, cautiousness, perseverance,
strength,
 Opposite – impulsiveness, carelessness,
irresponsibility

Do you like things planned or can you go
with the flow?
Extraversion

Social adaptability, assertiveness, boldness
 Opposite – introversion, shy

Do you need to be with other people all the
time or do you like to be by-yourself?
Agreeableness

Conformity, likeability, friendly,
compliance
 Opposite – coldness, negativity, distant

Is the glass half full or half empty?
Neuroticism

Anxiety, emotional, somewhat out of
control
 Opposite – stability, emotional control

Do you feel emotional all the time or do you
have control?
The Trait Approach
Construction of Inventories
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI)
– A large scale test designed to measure a
–
–
–
–
–
multitude of psychological disorders and
personality traits
Most widely used personality instrument
Now the MMPI - 2
Used in clinical and employment settings
Easy to administer and relatively objective
Caution should be used when interpreting the
responses of people from different cultures
The Trait Approach
MMPI Score Profile Showing Clinical Scales
The Trait Approach
Biological Roots of Personality


The “Big Five”
personality dimensions
were measured in 168
pairs of identical twins
and 132 pairs of
fraternal twins.
Results suggest that
personality differences
in the population are 40
to 50% genetically
determined.
The Trait Approach
Introversion and Extraversion

This is one of the most powerful dimensions
of personality and is seen in infants, adults,
and all over the world.
 Extravert
– A kind of person who seeks stimulation and
is sociable and impulsive

Introvert
– A kind of person who avoids stimulation and
is low-key and cautious
The Trait Approach
Perspectives: Do Traits Exist?
Personality Consistency Across the Lifespan


Evidence indicates that personality is least stable during
childhood.
The consistency of personality increases with age.
Karen Horny

Believe that Freud was all wrong.
 She believe that men has “womb envy” and
that men felt resentment that they could not
carry the child.
 Basic anxiety – an emotion that gives a
sense of uncertainty and loneliness in a
hostile world and can lead to
maladjustment.
Karen Horny 10 Neurotic
Needs





1. Need for affection
and approval.
2. partner and dread
to be left alone
3. restrict one’s life
and remain
inconspicuous
4. power and control
over others
5. exploit others





6. recognition or
prestige
7. personal admiration
8. personal
achievement
9. self-sufficiency and
independence
10. perfection and
unassailability