Transcript Unit 6 - Learning PowerPoint

Learning
Behaviorist Perspective
Wave Four: Behaviorism
• Behaviorism – Psychology is an objective
science
– ignored mental processes and studied only
observable behavior
– Believe behavior
• Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov
• John B. Watson
• Operant Conditioning
– B.F. Skinner
• Observational Learning
– Bandura
Learning
•Learning –
•Can’t be explained on the
basis of native response
tendencies (instinct or
natural behaviors),
maturation or temporary
states (fatigue, drugs,
etc)
Types of Learning
• Basic Learning
– Habituation
• Associative Learning
– Classical Conditioning
– Operant Conditioning
• Observational Learning
• Cognitive Learning
– Memorization
– Problem Solving
– Creative Thinking
Basic Learning
• Habituation – organism’s decreasing response to a
stimulus with repeated exposure to it…a basic form
of learning
• Example:
• This is similar to another term we’ve learned.
Can you think of what it is ?
Learned Associations
1. Associative Learning – learning that certain events
occur together
– Example:
– Two types of Associative Learning:
1. Classical Conditioning – learn to assoc 2 stimuli and anticipate events
2. Operant Conditioning – learn to associate a response with a
consequence
• Conditioning – the process of learning associations
2. Observational Learning – learn from others
experiences
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observational Learning
• Observational learning
- Learning through
observing other’s
experiences
• Example:
Types of Learning Review
• Review the following terms from Friday
at your tables and come up with an
example for each:
• Learning
• Habituation
• Associative learning
• Conditioning
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Observational learning
Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov
• Conducted 1st experiments
in associative learning
• Most known for studies in
classical conditioning
• Studied Digestion of Dogs.
Classical Conditioning
• Respondent Behavior - actions that
are
to a stimulus
– Passive learning (learner does not
have to think)
– Learning associations between events
learner DOES NOT CONTROL
– Helps learner predict what might
happen
Example:
• Can you name some other respondent
behaviors? What are some other
reflexive responses to a stimulus?
Create a list at your tables.
Classical Conditioning
• Unconditional Stimulus (UCS)- something
that automatically
– Can be a reflex, an uncontrolled bodily response or
an emotion
– Example =
• Unconditional Response (UCR)natural response to the UCS.
– Example =
and
Classical Conditioning
• Neutral stimulus (NS) - something that by
itself elicits NO involuntary response
– Example - NS = bell
• You present the stimulus with the UCS a whole
bunch of times.
Classical Conditioning
• Once learning takes place…
• Neutral stimulus becomes the
conditioned stimulus
• (CS) – The stimulus that
originally elicited no response
but comes to trigger a
conditioned response
• Example: NS (bell) = CS
(bell)
• Unconditioned response
becomes the conditioned
response (CR) – learned
response to a previously
neutral stimulus
• Hint: conditioned response
always closely resembles the
the unconditioned response
• Example: UR (salivating) =
CR (salivating)
Pavlov’s Experiments
Pavlov’s Experiments
Pavlov’s Experiments
Pavlov’s Experiments
Classical Conditioning
Practical Examples
• Food Aversions – you eat spoiled food and get
sick, the sight of the food you ate makes you
sick
• Advertising – you get hungry at the sight of
food, advertisers pair their logos with the
food, so you’ll get hungry when you see their
logo
• Phobia’s – you smash your face on the cement
after doing a back dive off the diving board,
now you fear diving boards.
Classical Conditioning
Steps to identify the basic concepts in classical
conditioning
1. What is the reflexive response that can’t be
controlled? (this will be both the UR, and the
CS)
2. What naturally would cause the reflexive
response? (this will be the US)
3. What normally won’t cause a reflexive
response (this will be the NS/CS)
5 Conditioning Responses
•
•
•
•
•
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Generalization
Discrimination
Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition – initial learning
of stimulus response
relationship
– Example:
Timing Matters
• Timing is important
• Delayed Conditioning: present NS then while NS is still there,
present UCS.
• Time between presenting the tone & food =
• Trace Conditioning: present NS, short break, then present UCS.
• Simultaneous Conditioning: NS and UCS are presented at the same
time.
• Backward Conditioning: UCS is presented, then NS is presented.
Higher Order Conditioning aka Second-Order
Conditioning •Higher Order Conditioning –
a new neutral stimulus
paired with a conditioned
stimulus can become a new
CS
First Order Conditioning.
•Bell + meat = salivation.
•Bell = Salivation.
Second Order Conditioning
(After first order
conditioning has occurred)
Classical Conditioning
– Learning exists because
the CS is now linked to
the UCS
• Example:
• Acquisition does not last
forever
Extinction
• Extinction - diminishing of
a conditioned response
• No longer present
• To prevent extinction, you
would need to occasionally
pair the CS with the USs
• Example:
• How would you extinguish the following
behaviors:
1. Fear of dogs from a dog bite
2. Feeling sick in a hospital because you got your
chemotherapy there
3. Flinching because someone says the word CAN
Spontaneous Recovery
• Spontaneous Recovery – After
extinction, followed by a rest period, the
CR will unexpectedly reappear to the CS
– Occurs only
– Proves CS
• Example:
Generalization and Discrimination
Generalization
• Something is so similar
to the CS that you get a
CR.
• CR is evoked by similar
stimuli
Example:
Discrimination
• Something different to
the CS so you do not get
a CR.
Example:
Classical Conditioning and Humans
• John Watson - Baby Albert experiment.
• Studied how emotions can be classically
conditioned.
•
Identify the following concepts in the Little Albert Experiment or give an
example of a possible answer if it was not discussed. Then share your answer
with your neighbor
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
US?
UR?
CS?
CR?
Acquisition
Generalization
Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Effects on ability to learn
through Classical Conditioning
1. Cognitive Processes
– Rescola and Wagner
– Seligman
2. Biological Predispositions
– Garcia and Kolling
Cognitive Processes
Expectancy (Rescola and Wagner) – an
awareness of how likely the US will occur
– the more predictable the association,
– Rescorla and Wagner Study:
• Shock waves preceded by a tone and then preceded
by a light that accompanies tone
• Rat will
• Tone is a better predictor—light adds no new info
• Animal learns expectancy –
Cognitive Processes
• Learned Helplessness (Seligman) –
hopeless and passive resignation an
animal has when unable to avoid
repeated negative events
– Example:
Biological Predispositions
• Classical Conditioning is biologically
adaptive
– It helps
• Snapping Twig predicts arrival of a
predictor
•
– If Backwards Conditioning is used, it
doesn’t predict anything
important….except if your so
biologically predisposed to something
Biological Predispositions
• Garcia and Koelling Study
• Challenged the idea that any NS
can serve as a CS
CS
US
CR
Loud Noise
Shock
Fear
Loud Noise
Radiation (nausea)
Nothing
Sweet Water
Shock
Nothing
Sweet Water
Occurred after
Only 1 trial!
Biological Predispositions
• Animals learn associations that
– conditioning
• Garcia’s Studies:
– Rats
– Coyotes and sheep
–
• Similar Studies
– Japanese Quail and color red
– Learned associations between women’s
sexuality and color red
Think Pair Share
• Several days after drinking an excessive
amount of alcohol, Kendra becomes
nauseated simply by the smell of liquor. The
sight of the half-empty liquor bottle from
which she drank does not, however, upset her.
What does Kendra's pattern of response
indicate about the limits of associative
learning?
Operant Conditioning
•Operant Conditioning - Associate own
actions with positive or negative
consequences
• reinforcers
•punishments
•Operant Behavior –
that produces rewarding or punishing
consequences
•The Learner is NOT passive
•
•Learning associations between events
organism
control and own
behavior
The Law of Effect
• Edward Thorndike
• Experiments with cats
• Cats received a fish
reward whenever they
found a path out of a box.
• Cats got faster each time.
•
B.F. Skinner
•
•
•
The Big Daddy of Operant Conditioning.
Nurture guy through and through.
Used a Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to
prove his concepts.
•
One of many famous studies: Superstition in pigeons
Skinner Box – an operant
conditioning chamber
containing a bar or key that
an animal can manipulate to
obtain
a device records these
responses
Shaping Behavior
Shaping - a technique for
reinforcing
• Reinforcers
– Shaping progresses more
rapidly when the
requirements for
reinforcement are small and
continuous
To train a dog to get your slippers, you
would have to reinforce him in small steps.
First, to move in the direction of the
slippers, then to find the slippers., then to
put them in his mouth, then to bring them
toward you and so on…this is shaping
behavior.
To get Barry to become a better math
student, you may reward him for doing the 1st
problem on his math homework, then for doing
two problems etc., until the entire homework
is done.
Shaping Behavior
Successive Approximations –
rewarding responses that are
closer and closer to the final
desired behavior and ignore all
other responses…
Example:
Training Maui to jump over a stick
Step 1. Give Maui a treat when she moves
toward the stick then…
Step 2. Only give Maui a treat when she
puts a paw over the stick then…
Step 3. Only give Maui a treat when she
walks over the stick
Step 4: Only give Maui a treat when she
jumps over a ½ raised stick etc..
•Maui is rewarded for her successive
approximations
You could train
your boyfriend
this way too!!
Reinforces
• Reinforcer is anything that
INCREASES a behavior.
Positive Reinforcement:
• The addition of something
– Examples:
Negative Reinforcement:
• The removal of something
– Aka Escape Learning – escape from an
adverse stimulus
– Example:
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT IS NOT
PUNISHMENT
Reinforcers
• Depends on the
perspective of the
person or animal be
reinforced
• Example:
•
– whining is reinforced
–
– added a stimulus which increased
Billy’s behavior = positive
reinforcement
– whining stopped
•
–
removal of a negative stimulus
which increased Dad’s behavior =
negative reinforcement
Positive or Negative?
Primary v. Secondary Reinforcers
Conditioned
Primary Reinforcer
Reinforcer/Secondary
• Things that are in
Reinforcer
themselves rewarding
(innately satisfying, • A stimulus that gains its
reinforcing power through
unlearned)
assoc. with a primary
– Example:
reinforcer
• Things we have learned to
value.
– Examples:
Token Economy
• Token Economy - Every
time a desired
behavior is performed,
a token is given.
• They can trade tokens
in for a variety of
prizes (reinforcers)
• Examples:
Premack Principle
• Premack Principle – a
more preferred
activity can be used
to reinforce a less
preferred activity
– Example:
Punishment
Meant to decrease a
behavior.
Positive Punishment
• Addition of something
Negative Punishment
(Omission Training)
• Removal of something
Punishment works best
when it is
Positive or Negative?
Spanking
Time out
Party plates
Losing
Driving
Privileges
Detention
No T.V.
Reinforcement & Punishment
Positive
Negative
Reinforcement
Add good
Remove bad
Punishment
Add bad
Remove good
Same Terminology as Classical
Conditioning
• Acquisition – Associating response with a
• Extinction – Responding decreases when
If we wanted to
reinforce this baby’s
dancing by giving him
– If don’t reinforce a bad behavior by giving in, the
lollipops when he dances.
behavior will become extinguished
Identify the following….
• Spontaneous Recovery – reappearance of a
behavior after
– Bad behavior can
• Generalization – responses to
stimuli are being reinforced
• Discriminative stimulus – only a
stimulus will get the reaction that is reinforced
– Example:
Use Classical and Operant
Conditioning to explain each of
these ideas about Punishments
• Punished behavior is suppressed, not
forgotten
– Spontaneous Recovery
• Punishment teaches discrimination
– Classical or operant Conditioning
• Punishment can teach fear
– Classical Conditioning (Parent, school = CS,
Hitting =UCS, CR = Fear)
• Physical punishment may increase
aggressiveness
– Observational Learning
Immediate and Delayed
Reinforcers
• Immediate – present reinforcer
after the desired behavior
• Delayed – most animals will
– Examples:
• Delaying gratification for more valued rewards
is part of
– Children who delay gratification are more socially
competent and high achieving adults
•
Reinforcement Schedules
How often do you give
the reinforcer?
• Every time or just
sometimes you see
the behavior.
Continuous v. Partial
Reinforcement
Continuous
• Reinforce the behavior
the behavior is exhibited.
• Usually done when the
subject is
to make the association.
• Acquisition comes
• But so does extinction.
– Example:
Partial
• Reinforce the behavior only
SOME of the times it is
exhibited.
• Acquisition comes more
• But is more resistant to
extinction.
• FOUR types of Partial
Reinforcement schedules.
• Examples:
•
Ratio Schedules
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
• Provides a reinforcement
• Provides a
after a
reinforcement after a
• Very hard to get acquisition
but also very resistant to
Fixed Ration- She
gets a manicure for
every 5 pounds she
loses.
Variable Ratio – she gets a manicure after 5 lbs,
18 lbs, and 25lbs
Interval Schedules
Fixed Interval
• Requires a
to elapse before giving
the reinforcement.
• Time is
Examples:
Variable Interval
• Requires a
to elapse
before giving the
reinforcement.
• Very hard to get
acquisition but also very
resistant to extinction.
• Time is
Examples:
Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement Schedules
You are a new teacher in an AP Psychology class
and are deciding which reinforcement
schedule to use for pop quizzes. Using each of
the reinforcement schedules you learned
about today, explain how each would
reinforce the behavior (reading the textbook)
and select the one that would be best to
reinforce the behavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed
Variable
Ratio
Predictable; a set or
fixed number
After an unpredictable
number; a changing
number
Interval
Predictable; a fixed
amount of time
Unpredictably often; a
changing amount of time
For Vina, cigarettes reduce feelings of tension
and anxiety. Because of her heavy smoking,
however, she has a bad morning cough and
breathing difficulties. How can the principles of
operant conditioning help to explain the
development and continuation of Vina's selfdefeating smoking habit? Explain the extent to
which the reinforcement for Vina's habit is
positive or negative, primary or conditioned,
immediate or delayed, partial or continuous.
Evidence of Cognition
1.
2.
3.
4.
Expectancy
Latent Learning
Insight Learning
Intrinsic
Motivation
Cognition and Operant
Conditioning
1. Expectancy – organisms
develop expectations that
a response will be
– Animals on fixed-interval
reinforcement schedule
respond
2. Latent Learning
• Edward Toleman
• Three rat experiment.
• Latent Learning – learning
that occurs but is not
evident until there is an
• Examples:
3. Insight Learning
• Insight Learning –
Sudden realization
of the solution to a
problem…an “ah ha”
moment.
• Example:
4. Intrinsic Motivation
• Intrinsic motivation –
motivation that comes from
inside an individual without
external rewards
– Example:
• Extrinsic Motivation –
motivation that comes from
promised rewards or to
avoid punishment
– Example:
Overjustification Effect
• Overjustification Effect –
occurs when an expected
such as money or prizes
decreases a person's
to perform a task.
– Example:
Biological Predispositions
• Organisms learn
behaviors similar to
their own natural
behaviors best
• Instinctive Drift reverting to biologically
predisposed behaviors
– Examples:
Contrasting Classical and Operant
Conditioning
Skinner’s Legacy
Applications of Operant Conditioning
•
•
•
•
At school
In sports
At home
For selfimprovement
• Biofeedback – feeding
back info regarding
physiological responses
to learn how to control
specific responses
Observational Learning
• Observational learning/Social
Learning – learning by
observing and imitating
others
– Example:
• Modeling – the process of
observing and imitating a
specific behavior
– Example:
Children who receive
physical punishment
tend to display more
aggression
Mirrors in the Brain
• Mirror neurons – frontal lobe neurons that
fire when performing certain actions or when
observing others
– Example:
• Theory of mind – a child’s developmental
ability to empathize and infer another
persons state of mind
– Example:
Observational Learning
• Albert Bandura and his
BoBo Doll
• We learn through modeling
behavior from others.
• Social Learning Theory Observational learning +
Operant Conditioning
–
Prosocial vs Antisocial Effects
• Prosocial effects – positive, constructive,
helpful behavior
– Example:
• Antisocial effects – negative, destructive,
unhelpful behavior
– Example:
• Violence Viewing Effect –
• Although Mr. Wright often tells his children
about the importance of donating time and
money to charitable causes, he rarely does so
himself. He believes that this hypocrisy will
not rub off on his children, however, as long as
he has plausible excuses for his lack of charity.
Use your understanding of learning processes
to explain how Mr. Wright's children are likely
to be affected by their father's behavior. What
advice would you give to Mr. Wright?