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Chapter
TWO
Foundations of
Individual Behavior
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Learning Objectives




Define the key biographical characteristics.
Identify two types of ability
Shape the behavior of others.
Distinguish between the four schedules of
reinforcement.
 Clarify the role of punishment in learning.
 Practice self-management
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Biographical Characteristics
Biographical Characteristics
Personal characteristics—such as age, gender,
race and tenure—that are objective and easily
obtained from personnel records.
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Ability, Intellect, and Intelligence
Ability
An individual’s capacity to perform
the various tasks in a job.
Intellectual Ability
The capacity to do mental activities.
Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence contains four subparts:
cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.
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Dimensions of
Intellectual Ability
• Number aptitude
• Verbal comprehension
• Perceptual speed
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Spatial
(occupying space)
visualization
• Memory
E X H I B I T 2–1
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COGNITION
Dictionary Meanings


The mental process of knowing, including
aspects such as awareness, perception,
reasoning, and judgment.
That which comes to be known, as through
perception, reasoning, or intuition; knowledge.
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
Copyright © 2006 by Houghton Mifflin Company.
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Cognitive Science
 ‘Cognitive Science is the interdisciplinary study
of mind and intelligence, embracing philosophy,
psychology, artificial intelligence, neuroscience,
linguistics, and anthropology.’

(Thagard, P. 1996. Mind: Introduction to Cognitive Science, Cambridge, Mass,: MIT
Press, page ix. In 1996)
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What is Cognition?
 ‘The expression cognitive science is used to describe a
broadly integrated class of approaches to the study of
mental activities and processes and of cognition in
particular. Cognitive science is broad not just in the sense
of encompassing disciplines as varied as neuroscience,
cognitive psychology, philosophy, linguistics, computer
science, and anthropology, but also in the sense that
cognitive scientists tend to adopt certain basic, general
assumptions about mind and intelligent thought and
behavior.
 These include assumptions that the mind is (1) an
information processing system, (2) a representational
device, and (3) (in some sense) a computer.’

(Bechtel, W, and Graham, G. 1998. A Companion to Cognitive Science, Oxford:
Blackwell, page xiii. In 1998
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What is Cognition?
http://www.bianys.org/learnet/tutorials/cognition.html
 In general, the word “cognition” refers to all of the mental
activities involved in receiving information, comprehending it,
storing it, retrieving it, and using it. Thus cognition includes:
 1. The sensory and perceptual processes that enable us to
receive information from the world (e.g., vision, hearing, smell,
taste, and tactile sensation/perception)
 2. All of the mental processes involved in attending to the
information, recognizing it as something meaningful, making
sense of the information, relating it to what is already known,
organizing the information, deciding what is important and what
is not important, storing the information for later retrieval,
retrieving it when useful
 3. Using the information to make decisions about what to do, to
solve problems, to communicate, and the like.
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Deductive and Inductive Thinking
 In logic, we often refer to the two broad methods
of reasoning as the deductive and inductive
approaches.
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Deduction
 Deductive reasoning works from
the more general to the more
specific. Sometimes this is
informally called a "top-down"
approach. We might begin with
thinking up a theory about our
topic of interest. We then narrow
that down into more specific
hypotheses that we can test. We
narrow down even further when
we collect observations to
address the hypotheses. This
ultimately leads us to be able to
test the hypotheses with specific
data -- a confirmation (or not) of
our original theories.
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Induction
 Inductive reasoning works the
other way, moving from specific
observations to broader
generalizations and theories.
Informally, we sometimes call this
a "bottom up" approach (please
note that it's "bottom up" and not
"bottoms up" which is the kind of
thing the bartender says to
customers when he's trying to
close for the night!). In inductive
reasoning, we begin with specific
observations and measures,
begin to detect patterns and
regularities, formulate some
tentative hypotheses that we can
explore, and finally end up
developing some general
conclusions or theories.
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Physical Abilities
Physical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks demanding
stamina, dexterity (good physical
coordination ), strength, and similar
characteristics.
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Nine Physical Abilities
Strength Factors
1. Dynamic strength
2. Trunk strength
3. Static strength
4. Explosive strength
Flexibility Factors
5. Extent flexibility
Other Factors
6. Dynamic flexibility
7. Body coordination
8. Balance
9. Stamina
Source: Adapted from
HRMagazine published
by the Society for Human
Resource Management,
Alexandria, VA.
E X H I B I T 2–2
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The Ability-Job Fit
Employee’s
Abilities
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Ability-Job
Fit
Job’s Ability
Requirements
Learning
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience.
Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
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Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus ( incentive) that would
not ordinarily produce such a response.
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
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Classical Conditioning
 The meat was an unconditioned stimulus( it
invariably caused the dog to react in a specific
way).
 The reaction that took place whenever the
unconditioned stimulus occurred, was called the
unconditioned response ( the noticeable increase
in salivation, in this case).
 The bell was an artificial stimulus, called
conditioned stimulus.
 Although it was originally neutral, after the bell
was paired with the meat (an unconditioned
stimulus), it eventually produced a response
when presented alone. .
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Classical Conditioning … continued
 Conditioned response – the dog salivated in
reaction to the bell alone.
 When the stimuli, one compelling and the other
neutral, are paired, the neutral one becomes a
conditioned stimulus and, hence, takes on the
properties of the unconditioned stimulus.
 Classical conditioning is passive. Something
happens and we react in a specific way. As such,
it can be explain simple “reflexive”.
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Source: The Far Side ®
by Gary Larson © 1993
Far Works, Inc. All rights
reserved. Used with
permission.
E X H I B I T 2–3
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Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
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Operant Conditioning
 It argues that the behavior is the function of its
consequences.
 People learn to get something they want or to
avoid something they do not want.
 Operant behavior means voluntary or learned
behavior in contrast to reflexive or unlearned
behavior.
 The tendency to repeat such behavior is
influenced by the reinforcement or lack of
reinforcement.
 Therefore, reinforcement strengthens a behavior
& increases the likelihood that it will be repeated.
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Operant Conditioning ……continued.
 Skinner, argued that people will most likely
engage in desired behaviors if they immediately
follow the desired response; and that behavior
that is not rewarded, or is punished, is less likely
to be repeated.
 Example - A commissioned sales person wanting
to earn a sizable income finds that doing so is
linked to generating high sales in his territory.
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Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Social-Learning Theory
Individuals can also learn by observing what happens
to other people & just by being told about something,
as well by direct experience.
Much of what we have learned comes from watching models – parents,
teachers, peers, motion pictures, TV performers, bosses, and so forth.
Key Concepts
The influence of models
is central
to the social – learning view
point
• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes
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Social-Learning Theory
 Attentional Processes: People learn from a model only when
they recognize & pay attention to its critical features. We tend to
be influenced by the models that are attractive, repeatedly
available, important to us, or similar to us in our estimation.
 Rentention Processes: A model’s influence will depend on how
well the individual remembers the model’s action after the model
is no longer readily available.
 Motor Reproduction Processes: After a person has seen a new
behavior by observing the model, the watching must be converted
to doing. This process demonstrates that the individual can
perform the modeled activities.
 Reinforcement Processes: Individuals will be motivated to
exhibit the modeled behavior if +ve incentives/rewards are
provided. Behaviors that are +vely reinforced will be given more
attention, learned better, & performed more often.
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Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response.
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.
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Contingencies of Reinforcement
 Positive reinforcement – occurs when the
introduction of a consequence increases or
maintains the frequency or future probability of a
behavior.
 Negative reinforcement – occurs when the removal
or avoidance of a consequence increases or
maintains the frequency or future probability of a
behavior.
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Contingencies, cont.
 Punishment – occurs when a consequence decreases the
frequency or future probability of a behavior
 Extinction – occurs when a target behavior decreases because
no consequences follow it –
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Punishment vs. Negative-Reinforcement
Behavior
Customers
served
too slowly
Consequence
Boss
criticizes
Punishment
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Behavior
Consequence
Customers
served
faster
Boss stops
criticizing
Negative Reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
each time it is demonstrated.
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not
every time it is demonstrated.
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Schedules of Reinforcement
 Continuous reinforcement
refers to reinforcement
being administered to
each instance of a
response
 Intermittent reinforcement
lies between continuous
reinforcement and
extinction
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An Example of Continuous Reinforcement
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An example of Fixed Ratio Reinforcement
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An Example of Variable Ratio Reinforcement
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Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at
uniform time intervals.
Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a
fixed or constant number of
responses.
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Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed-ratio
E X H I B I T 2–4
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Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement
E X H I B I T 2–5
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Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 2–5 (cont’d)
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Behavior Modification
OB Mod
The application of reinforcement concepts
to individuals in the work setting.
Five Step Problem-Solving Model
1. Identify critical behaviors
2. Develop baseline data
3. Identify behavioral consequences
4. Develop and apply intervention
5. Evaluate performance improvement
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Chapter Checkup: Reinforcement Theory
When professors give random pop quizzes or
take random attendance, students often
complain that they are adults, old enough to
make their own decisions, and should therefore
not be required to come to class. How do you
reconcile this argument with what we know
about reinforcement theory? Discuss with a
classmate.
What kind of reinforcement schedule are these
professors using? Would a different schedule be
preferable? If so, which one?
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Methods of Shaping Behavior -
Types of Reinforcement
 Positive reinforcement
– Providing a pleasant reward for a desired
behavior.
 Negative reinforcement
– Removing an unpleasant consequence when the
desired behavior occurs.
 Punishment
– Is causing an unpleasant condition in an
attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior.
 Extinction
– Eliminating any reinforcement that is
maintaining a behavior is called extinction.
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Chapter Checkup: Reinforcement Theory
Recall and write down the three criteria that
indicate learning has occurred. Do you think
that learning, according to these criteria, really
occurs as a result of a one semester college
class? Discuss with a neighbor.
What kinds of things would you recommend to a
college professor to increase the likelihood of
students learning all class material? Use theories
from the text to frame your answer.
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