Transcript document

Ch. 2: Behavioral Learning
Theory
• Two Theoretical Models:
• Classical Conditioning
– Environmental stimulus  or ≠ 
Response
– Involuntary Behavior: Limited to 2 categories
of responses
• Operant Conditioning
– A(ntecedent/s) + B(ehavior/s) +
C(onsequence/s)
– “Operants” or Voluntary Behavior
Ch. 2: Classical Conditioning
• Theory:
• Behavior change (new responses) results
from the co-occurrence to of 2 stimuli at
approximately the same time
– Contiguity Principle: Pairings
– Learning new behaviors
– Involuntary behavior: Reflexive; Affective
Ch. 2: Classical Conditioning
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The Model: US  UR::CS  CR
US  UR: Environment elicits response
CS/US  UR: Pairing stimuli  response
CS  CR: Removal of US results in
neutral stimulus paired with conditioned
response
Ch. 2: Classical Conditioning
• 2 Principles that explain expanded
learning:
• Generalization
– Responding to stimuli SIMILAR to that
involved in learning a new response, not
involved in the initial learning
• Extinction
– Repeated absence of association w/ an US
resulting in decrease & eventual
disappearance of a CR
Ch. 2: Operant Conditioning
• Basic Principle:
• A response followed by a reinforcing
stimulus (a reinforcer) is more likely to
occur again, under similar circumstances
• 2 Necessary Conditions:
• Learners must make a response
• Reinforces must be “contingent”
Ch. 2: Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement
– Any consequence following a behavior that
increases likelihood that behavior will recur or
increase in frequency
• Punishment
Any consequence following a behavior that
decreases likelihood that behavior will recur,
decreases in frequency or suppresses
behavior
Ch. 2: Reinforcement in the
Classroom
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Primary vs Secondary Reinforcers
Positive vs Negative Reinforcement
Timing in Reinforcement
Motivation in Reinforcement
Ch. 2: Reinforcement in the
Classroom
Basic needs
• Physiological: food; water; warmth; oxygen
– Sustains life; necessary for life
• Physical contacts: Affection, etc
– Reflects biological needs
• Secondary Reinforcers in the classroom:
– Learned behaviors that must be “crafted”
Ch. 2: Reinforcement in the
Classroom
• Primary vs Secondary Reinforcers
– Primary: Satisfies basic needs
– Secondary: Reinforcing through association
over time (w/o directly satisfying needs)
Ch. 2: Reinforcement in the
Classroom
• Positive vs Negative Reinforcement
– Probability of behavior increasing as result of
reinforcement, period
• Positive: Stimulus presented AFTER
behavior
• Negative: Stimulus removed as RESULT
of behavior
Principles of behavior
modification
From m s w
What is behavior modification?
There are many different methods and
philosophies of dealing with “inappropriate,”
“abnormal,” or “undesirable”
behavior. Behavior modification is one of these. It
is different from other methods and philosophies
in that it
focuses only on observable, describable, and
measurable behaviors, as opposed,
behaviorist principles
• based on behaviorist principles, operates on the
following tenets:
• 1) Behavior is controlled by antecedents, events which
occur before a behavior is exhibited, and
• 2) By consequences, that is, events which occur after a
behavior is exhibited.
• 3) These antecedents and consequences can be
changed in order to increase or decrease the chance
that a given behavior will continue to be exhibited.
• 4) Behavior, appropriate as well as inappropriate, is
learned.
What are the aims of behavior
modification?
• Behavior modification techniques aim to manipulate the
antecedents and consequences of behavior so that the
• likelihood of appropriate behavior is increased and
inappropriate behavior is decreased.
• Proactive behavior modification, interventions which
avoid the utilization of aversive consequences, also
• involves teaching new and more appropriate skills
(positive programming). The reason for this is the belief
that
• all behavior is learned. If you are trying to reduce an
inappropriate behavior, an appropriate behavior must be
• taught as an alternative.
When should behavior modification
techniques be implemented?
Before introducing an intervention, several things must take place. First, it must be
established that there is,
• condition, language difficulties, or cultural differences, must be investigated.
Additionally, inputfrom other staff
• and from parents is necessary in establishing which behavior is problematic. Second, a
functional analysis needs
• to be completed in order to establish which antecedents and consequences are
supporting the behavior (or which
• antecedents and consequences are needed in the case of promoting behavior). Third, it
must be determined
• whether the target behavior is of priority to justify intervention. For example, while pencil
tapping may be an
• annoying behavior, it probably does not warrant implementation of a token economy. In
deciding whether a
• behavior necessitates intervention, you will need to look at its frequency (how often it
occurs as compared to
• peers), the intensity at which the behavior is exhibited, and the rate at which the student
is able to learn new
• behaviors.
• After these steps have been taken and it is agreed that a problem which warrants
intervention does exist,
• behavior modification can be implemented.
What are examples of behavior
modification interventions?
Examples of behavior modification which can be
used to increase behavior are: praise and
approval, modeling,
positive programming, shaping, token economy,
self-monitoring, and shaping. Methods which
can be used to
decrease behavior are: extinction, reinforcing
incompatible behavior, relaxation, selfmonitoring, and shaping
Principles of Behavior Modification
Breaking old habits and starting new
ones is hard at any age, but
becomes especially harder as the
years pass. Habits are conditioned
behaviors that have evolved over
time. The principles of behavior
modification use this conditioning
process to develop new habits and
eliminate old ones. Positive and
negative reinforcements are the
tools used throughout this process.
•
Identification
–
Behavior modification principles are based on a
branch of psychology known as behavioral theory.
Behavior--whether good of bad--is viewed as a
conditioned habit. The process of behavior change
is a matter of reconditioning old and new behaviors.
B.F. Skinner--an American psychologist--is credited
with first developing this practice in the mid 1900s.
His theory of operant conditioning formed the basis
for the principles behind the behavior modification
approach. This approach is useful for promoting
behavior change in children, and has been used to
treat individuals with anxiety disorders and
obsessive compulsive disorder.
• New Behaviors
– Part of behavioral conditioning involves the
circumstances leading up to a behavior. These
circumstances set the stage for the behavior to take
place. The cueing principle makes use of these preconditions as a way to develop new behaviors. Once
the desired behavior is carried out, positive
reinforcement, or a reward is given. The use of
reward works to shape a person's motivations toward
the desired behavior. For larger tasks, or goals, the
principle of successive approximation can be used to
reward a person as he progresses through each
successive step toward a goal.
• Old Behaviors
– When developing a new behavior, or habit,
eliminating undesirable behaviors becomes part of
the change process. Behavior modification makes
use of negative reinforcement techniques to phase
out undesirable behaviors. The extinction principle
works by gradually removing whatever positive
reinforcements are attached to an undesirable
behavior. Another technique--called the satiation
principle--encourages the individual to indulge in the
undesired behavior until she loses interest. A more
direct form of negative reinforcement is based on the
punishment principle where the undesired behavior is
paired with an unfavorable stimulus.
• Emotional Responses
– The process used in modifying an emotional behavior
is made up of similar techniques that involve positive
and negative reinforcement. The avoidance principle
introduces a negative reinforcement prior to an
undesirable behavior, like an angry outburst. The fear
reduction principle is used to eliminate an undesirable
fear response by desensitizing a person to the feared
event, or object. This is done by gradually exposing
the person to the situation in steps, until he no longer
experiences feelings of fear.
• Maintenance
– An important part of developing a new behavior is
maintaining a new routine until it becomes a regular
part of a person's lifestyle. The substitution principle
uses positive reinforcements to maintain a new
behavior by substituting a more powerful reward in
the place of the reward being used. This is done by
presenting the new reward directly after the old
reward is given. In order to further strengthen a new
behavior, the principle of decreasing reinforcement
uses fewer positive reinforcements spaced out in
longer intervals. This encourages a person to work
harder and longer for the same reward.
Model of Individual Behavior
Role
Perceptions
Motivation
Individual
Behavior and
Performance
Ability
Situational
Contingencies
O.B. Mod Application Model
Identify
Behaviors for Change
See Learning
Measure
Baseline frequency of response
Module A
Analyze
Functional consequences
Intervene
Evaluate
For performance improvement
Modifying On-the-Job Behavior
Step 1
Step 2
Identify target
behavior
Perform an
A B C
functional analysis
Step 3
Provide
supportive and
appropriately
Arrange
antecedents scheduled
consequences
Step 4
Evaluate
results
A Social Learning Model for SelfManagement
Person
(Psychological Self)
• Symbolic coding
• Rehearsal
• Self-talk
Behavior
• Behavior changes
needed for selfimprovement
Situational Cues
• Reminders & attention
focusers
• Self-observation data
• Avoidance of negative
cues
• Seeking of positive
cues
• Personal goal-setting
• Self contracts
Consequences
• Self-reinforcement/
self-punishment
• Building activities into
the task that are
naturally rewarding
• Reinforcement from
relevant others
A Social Learning Model of
Self-Management
Figure 3-3
Figure 3-3
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ABC’s to Behavior Management
• Antecedent
• Behavior
• Consequences
Defining Behavior
• Describe behavior objectively and
precisely (not: “he irritates me”)
• Can you observe the behavior when it
begins and when it stops
– can you count the number of occurrences
each day
– can you measure the duration of the
behavior
• Can you observe what happens just
before and just after it occurs
Behavior Management Techniques
•
•
•
•
•
•
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Extinction
Response Cost Punishment
Proximity Control
Decontamination
Positive Reinforcement
• The positive reinforcement must be
rewarding to the student
• The reinforcers must be contingent on
the behavior you want to increase
• The reinforcers should be delivered
immediately
• Provide appropriate units of rewards for
the expected unit of behavior
Negative Reinforcement
• Definition: reinforcing a behavior by
removing or preventing something
unpleasant - allows the individual to
escape or avoid a negative
consequence
• Not recommended as a prominent part
of classroom management
– negative reinforcement relies on the presence or threat of negative
consequences
– deliberate negative reinforcement sets the stage for
coercion/intimidation
Extinction
• To eliminate a behavior - you eliminate its
reinforcement, the behavior no longer
produces the desired effect (positive or
negative)
• Disadvantages: slow process and when
extinction procedures are first
implemented, the behavior will likely
become worse before better
Response Cost
• The behavior “costs” something by
withholding or withdrawing a positive
reinforcer contingent on a specific
misbehavior
• Example: students receive 10 tokens at
the beginning of class, every time a
problem behavior occurs, the teacher
gets 1 token back. The tokens can be
exchanged at the end of the day or
class for free time.
Decontamination
• Preventive action by inspecting classroom
for two types of objects
– Distractors: entice students to engage in offtask behaviors (e.g. toys, slide projectors,
hazards: exposed wires, broken windows
– Potential Weapons: letter openers, knives,
broom handle, hammer and yard stick
Proximity Control
• Visual - visually monitor student activity
from any position in the classroom
• Physical - teacher positions her/himself
close to each student to inhibit antecedent
Focusing on the “Self”
• Self
–core of one’s conscious existence
• Self-concept
–a person’s self-perception as a physical,
social, spiritual being.
Focusing on the “Self”
• Cognitions
–a person’s knowledge, opinions, or beliefs.
• Self-esteem
–Belief about one’s own self worth based on an
overall self-evaluation.
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An OB Model for
Studying Individual Differences
Figure 5-1
5-40
Self Management
• Behavioral Definition: help the student
choose a behavior to monitor
• Teach the student to record behavior
– Event recording
– Permanent Product recording
• Teach the student how to plot the data
• Teach the student how to apply selfreinforcement
• Use contracts to provide structure
Time Management
Techniques
• Self-Management
– Time analysis
– Goal setting
– Prioritization
– Delegation
– Action