Transcript Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus

Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Child Growth and
Development
TECA 1354
Nita Thomason, Ed.D.
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Information
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Name
Email (use Cougar Mail)
Phone
Major
Career Plan
Experience with Children
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Chapter 1
History, Theories, and Methods
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
What Is Child Development?
the field of study devoted to understanding
constancy and change from conception
through adolescence and emerging
adulthood
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
What Is Child Development?
• Periods of Development
• Dimensions of Development
– Conception and Prenatal
– Physiological
– Infancy
– Cognitive
– Early Childhood
– Social
– Middle Childhood
– Emotional
– Adolescence
– Behavioral
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Types of Theories
• Continuous: gradually building the skills he has always had. The
child is just like the adult except less mature, with growth will be
able to do everything
• Discontinuous: new ways of thinking and understanding emerge
at specific times
– A school counselor advises a parent, “Don’t worry about your
teenager’s argumentative behavior. It shows she understands the
world differently than she did as a child.” What position is the
counselor taking on the issue of continuous/discontinuous
development?
• Nature vs Nurture
– Cite an aspect of your development that differs from your parents
when he or she was your age.
– Identify a stressful time in your childhood. Were there one or more
adults whose presence made that time more manageable? If so,
what were the qualities of the relationship that contributed to your
ability to cope?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Why Do Researchers Study Child Development?
• Gain insight into
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human nature,
origins of adult behavior,
origins of differences,
origins, prevention and treatment of developmental problems
• Optimize conditions of development
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
What Views of Children Do We Find Throughout History?
• Ancient Times and Middle Ages
– Children viewed as innately evil
– Age 7 is the “age of reason”
– Children were treated as miniature adults
• John Locke
– Child came into world as tabula rasa, or “blank slates”
– Focus on role of environment and experience
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau
– Children are inherently good and moral
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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What Views of Children Do We Find Throughout History?
• Industrial Revolution
– Nuclear family
– Childhood is recognized as a time period of life
• 20th Century
– Child rights in labor, education, neglect
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Pioneers in the Study of Child Development
• Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882)
– Theory of evolution
– Use of baby biography
• G. Stanley Hall (1944 - 1924)
– Child development as a academic discipline
– Questionnaire methodology with children
• Alfred Binet (1857 – 1911)
– First standardized intelligence test
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Theories of
Child Development
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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What Are Theories?
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Related sets of statements about events
Include descriptive terms and concepts
Based on certain assumptions
Allow explanations and predictions
Wide range of applicability
Influence events
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Why Do We Have Theories?
• Theories of development help us
– describe,
– explain,
– predict, and
– influence events being studied.
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
• Freud’s theory of psychosexual development
• Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
• View children (and adults) involved in conflict
– internal drive and urges
– internalize ‘external’ demands and rules
• Stage theories
– distinct periods of development
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
• Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939)
• Levels of awareness
– Conscious level
– Preconscious level
– Unconscious level
• Parts of personality
– Id
– Ego
– Superego
• Quantity of gratification at each stage
– Fixated at that stage
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Stages of Psychosexual Theory of Development
• Oral Stage
– Sucking and biting
– Early weaning or breast-fed too long
– Fixation: nail-biting, smoking, “biting wit”
• Anal Stage
– Control and elimination of waste
– Excessive strict or permissive toilet training
– Fixation: anal-retentive (neatness); anal-expulsion (sloppiness)
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Stages of Psychosexual Theory of Development
• Phallic Stage
– Parent-child conflict over masturbation
– View same sex parent as rival
• Latency Stage
– Sexual feelings remain unconscious
• Genital Stage
– Begins at adolescence
– Desire sexual gratification through intercourse with member of other
sex
– Interest in any other sexual gratification indicates fixation at an
earlier stage of development
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Evaluation of Psychosexual Theory of Development
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Major contribution to 20th century thought
Comprehensive theory of childhood
Influenced parents, child-care workers and educators
Based on patients (women) who were emotionally troubled
Little empirical data
Placed too much emphasis on instincts and unconscious motives
– Erik Erikson and Karen Horney
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
• Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994)
– modified and expanded Freud’s theory
– successful resolution of life crises bolsters sense of identity
• Differences from psychosexual development
– focus on development of self-identity
– includes conscious and purposeful acts in development
– extended stages to eight; throughout adulthood
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Stages of Psychosocial Development
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Trust versus Mistrust
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
Initiative versus Guilt
Industry versus Inferiority
Identity versus Role Diffusion
Intimacy versus Isolation
Generativity versus Stagnation
Ego Integrity versus Despair
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Evaluation of Psychosocial Development
• Highly appealing
– emphasize choice and minimize urges
– portray people as prosocial and giving
• Unified view of life span development
• Some empirical support
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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The Learning Perspective Behavioral and
Social Cognition Theories
• Mechanical learning by association
– Conditioning
• Intentional learning
– Rote and trail-and-error learning
– Observational learning
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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What Is the Theory of Behaviorism?
• John Watson
• Only address observable behavior
• Contributions to behaviorism
– Classical Conditioning
– Operant Conditioning
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Classical Conditioning
• Learning by Association
• Unconditioned = Unlearned
– Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) elicits Unconditioned Response
(UCR)
– Introduction of a Neutral Stimulus
– Repeated association of neutral Stimulus and UCS
• Conditioned = Learned
– Conditioned Stimulus (CS) elicits Conditioned Response (CR)
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov’s Salivating Dogs
– Food (UCS) elicits Salivation (UCR)
– Clinking of food trays (neutral stimulus)
– Clinking of food trays prior to Food (UCS)
– Clinking of food trays (CS) elicits Salivation (CR)
• Application with Children
– Behavior modification
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Figure 1.1 Schematic Representation of Classical Conditioning
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Operant Conditioning
• Learn to operate on environment because of the effects of
behavior
• Behavior occurs and then a stimulus is introduced that will
encourage the repetition of the behavior
• B. F. Skinner – Reinforcement
– Any stimulus that increases the frequency of the behavior they
follow
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Principles of Operant Conditioning
• Positive reinforcers
– Something applied that increases the frequency of the behavior
• Negative reinforcers
– Something removed that increases the frequency of the behavior
• Extinction
– Operant behavior is no longer shown after repeated performance of
the behavior without reinforcement
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Figure 1.2 Positive versus Negative Reinforcers
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Punishment
• Aversive events that decrease the behavior they follow
• Usually undesirable for learning
– Does not suggest an alternative, acceptable form of behavior
– Tends to suppress undesirable behavior only under certain
conditions
– Punished children may withdraw from the situation
– Can create anger and hostility
– May generalize too far
– May be imitated as a way of problem solving or coping with stress
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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A Closer Look
Operant Conditioning of
Vocalizations in Infants
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Figure 1.3 Negative Reinforcers versus Punishments
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Application of Operant Conditioning
• Shaping
– Teaching complex behaviors
• Socialization of children
– Parent and child
– Child and child
– Teacher and child
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Social Cognitive Theory
• Acquire basic “know-how” through observational learning
• Learning alters child’s mental representation of environment and
influences belief in ability to change the environment
• Child is an active learner
• Intentional observation of models for imitation
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Evaluation of Learning Theories
• Meets the goals of describe, explain and predict aspects of
children’s behavior
• Principles abundant in education and clinical application
• Unclear if learning is only mechanical
• Underestimates role of biological-maturation factors
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
The Cognitive Perspective
• Focus on children’s mental processes
– How children perceive and mentally represent the world
• Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980)
– Cognitive-developmental theory
• Information-processing theory
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory
• Working with Binet on IQ tests for children, Piaget became
interested in children’s incorrect answers
• Piaget’s work was not widely read until mid 1950’s
– difficult to understand
– introduced when behaviorism and psychoanalysis were popular
• Piaget’s view of children as “little scientists”
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Piaget’s Basic Concepts
• Scheme
– pattern of action involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge
• Adaptation
– interaction between child and the environment
• Assimilation
– Respond to new object or event according to existing schemes
• Accommodation
– Adjust scheme to a new object or event
• Equilibration
– Process of restoring equilibrium after a period of accommodation
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory
• Four major stages
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Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
• Stages are universal
• Development is based on children’s interactions with their
environments
• Influential in many educational settings
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Evaluation of Cognitive-Development Theory
• Piaget may have underestimated children’s abilities by age
• Cognitive growth may be more gradual than Piaget’s distinct
stages
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Information-Processing Theory
• Influenced by the concepts of computer science
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Process of encoding information (input)
Storage of information (long-term memory)
Retrieval of information (short-term memory)
Manipulation of information to solve problems (output)
Software (mental processes)
Hardware (brain)
• Consider “limitations” of child
– Short-term memory
– Ability to multi-task
• Applications in education
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
The Biological Perspective
• Physical development
– Gains in height and weight
– Development of nervous system
– Developments connected with hormones, heredity
• Ethology
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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What Is Ethology?
• Evolution of humans within the animal kingdom
– Influence by Charles Darwin, Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
• Involves instinctive behavior patterns
– Inborn fixed action patterns (FAPs)
• Evaluation
– Assume instinctive behaviors can be modified through learning
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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The Ecological Systems Theory
• Explains development through interactions between children and
the settings in which they live
• Urie Bronfenbrenner
– Reciprocal interactions
• focus on interactions between parent and child (bidirectional)
• Five Embedded Systems
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Microsystem
Mesosystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosystem
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Figure 1.4 The Contexts of Human Development
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Developing in a
World of Diversity
Influence of the Macrosystem on
the Development of Independence
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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The Sociocultural Perspective
• View children as social beings who are influenced by the cultures
in which they live
• Lev Vygotsky’s (1896 – 1934) sociocultural theory
• Impact on children of human diversity
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
– range of tasks child can perform with help of someone more skilled
– use of conversations, external and internal, to guide the learning
• Scaffolding
– Adult provides problem-solving methods until child can perform
independently
– May also be used by child with peers
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Sociocultural Perspective and Human Diversity
• Awareness of diversity among children
– Ethnicity
• Understanding of children’s family values and cultural expectations
– Gender
• Understanding of gender-role expectations
– Sexual Orientation
– Disabilities
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
Controversies in
Child Development
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
The Nature – Nurture Controversy
• To what extent is human behavior the results of
– Nature – heredity
– Nurture – environment
• Orientation toward nature
– Cognitive-development theory
– Biological theorists
• Orientation toward nurture
– Learning theories
• Contemporary view of both nature and nurture
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
The Continuity – Discontinuity Controversy
• Do developmental changes occur
– continuously (gradually)
– discontinuously (major qualitative leaps)
• Orientation toward continuity
– Maturational theories
• Orientation toward discontinuity
– Stage theories (Freud, Piaget)
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
The Active – Passive Controversy
• For learning to occur do educators need to
– motivate passive learners, or
– encourage active learners to explore
• Bronfenbrenner (1977) views children as both active and passive
• Bandura’s reciprocal determinism
– mutual influences of people and the environment
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
How Do We Study Child
Development?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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What Is the Scientific Method?
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Step 1:
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Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 5:
Formulating a Research Question
Developing a Hypothesis
Testing the Hypothesis
Drawing Conclusions about the Hypothesis
Publish Findings
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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What Is Naturalistic Observation?
• Field studies
– Observations done in natural (real-life) settings
– Control for interference
• Often used initially to gather descriptive data or to explore
relationships among variables
• Examples of naturalistic-observation studies
– Motor behavior of Native American children strapped to
cradleboards
– Language development in diverse cultures
– Socialization patterns in diverse cultures
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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What Is Case Study?
• Account of behavior of an individual
• Includes many different types of information
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Child diaries
Questionnaires
Standardized tests
Interviews
Other sources of records
• Example of case study
– Piaget’s cognitive-development model based on his own children
– Freud’s psychosexual theory based on his patients
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Child Observation Project
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Height/weight chart
Anecdotal records
Running records
Physical development summary
Intellectual/cognitive summary
Social/emotion summary
Child-made products
Photographs
Parent comments/interview sheet
Teacher comments
Developmental milestones chart
Resources (in APA style)
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
What Does It Mean to Correlate Information?
• Mathematical calculation to determine relationships between
behaviors and/or traits
• Correlation coefficient
– Mathematical number between +1.00 and -1.00
– Positive correlation
– Negative correlation
• Limitation: Shows relationships, not cause and effect
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Figure 1.7 Examples of Positive and Negative Correlations
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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What Is an Experiment?
• Research method in which one group receives treatment and
another does not
• Used to determine cause and effect
• Variables
– Independent variable - manipulated by experimenter
– Dependent variable – measured results
• Participant Groups
– Experimental group – receive the treatment
– Control group – do not receive the treatment
• Random Assignment
• Ethical and Practical Considerations
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 1
How Do Researchers Study Development Over Time?
• Longitudinal research
– Same children are observed repeatedly over time
– May lose participants over time
• Cross-sectional research
– Children of different ages are observed and compared
– Cohort effect
• Cross-sequential research
– Combines longitudinal (time period) and cross-sectional (cohorts)
– Breaks time span into convenient segments
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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Figure 1.8 Examples of Cross-Sequential Research
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
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What Ethical Guidelines Are Involved in Research
in Child Development?
• Standards to promote the dignity of the individual, foster human
welfare, and maintain scientific integrity
– Treatment may not do physical or psychological harm
– Subjects must participate voluntarily