Transcript 2206_lect9 - Nipissing University Word

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The behavior of a model is witnessed by an
observer, and the observer’s behavior is
subsequently altered.
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Observational learning is often referred to as
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In this way, we learn a behavior simply by
watching others perform it.
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social learning.
This type of learning can occur without our
even being aware that our behavior has been
influenced in this way.
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A more-or-less instinctive or reflexive
behavior triggered by the occurrence of
the same behavior in another individual.
Example:
You yawn. One by one, each of your
classmates also yawn.
One startled duck gets the entire flock started.
Laugh tracks in TV shows urge us to laugh.
We will orient ourselves towards the direction
others are looking.
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The probability of a behavior is changed because an
individual’s attention is drawn to a particular item
or location by the behavior of another individual.
Example:
You notice a candy bowl in the waiting room after a
girl comes in and notices it.
It is particularly effective for increasing the
probability of a behavior associated with eating,
drinking, or mating.
Animals will often use scent marking at food sites.
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Vicarious emotional conditioning is classically
conditioning of emotional responses that result
from seeing those emotional responses exhibited by
others.
Expressions of fear in others may act as
unconditioned stimuli (US) that elicit the emotion of
fear in others.
Example:
Jellyfish: Look of fear in others  Fear in oneself
NS
US
UR
Jellyfish  Fear in oneself
CS
CR
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The emotional reactions of others may serve as
conditioned stimuli (CSs) rather than USs.
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Example:
Look of fear in others: Frightening events  Fear in
oneself
NS1
US
Look of fear in others  Fear in oneself
CS1
CR
UR
Jellyfish: Look of fear in others  Fear in oneself
NS2
CS1
CR
Jellyfish  Fear in oneself
CS2
CR
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Thus, with respect to fear conditioning,
the look of fear in others may function
as either a US or a CS.
It is also possible that both processes
are involved, and they may even combine
to produce a stronger fear reaction.
Higher-order conditioning no doubt
plays a major role in the conditioning of
other, subtler emotions.
Example:
Pleasant emotions after seeing others smile.
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Acquisition through observational
learning first requires that the observer
pay attention to the behavior of the
model.
What makes us pay attention?
◦ Consequences of the model’s behavior.
◦ Reinforcement received for the behavior of
attending to a model.
◦ Sufficient skills to benefit from the modeling.
◦ Personal characteristics of a model.
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You can acquire information about a behavior
without ever translating that into performance.
We are more likely (or less likely) to perform a
modeled behavior when we have observed the
model experience reinforcement (or
punishment).
Example:
 A fragrance commercial depicts a woman as highly
attractive when she is wearing the fragrance.
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We are more (or less) likely to perform a
modeled behavior when we ourselves will
experience reinforcement (or punishment)
Example:
If you tell a joke and get a good laugh, you
will likely tell it again
Our history of reinforcement and punishment
teaches us when it is appropriate to perform
behaviors that have been modeled by others
Example:
Smoking and swearing
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Form of observational learning that involves the close
duplication of a novel behavior.
Example:
◦ Chelsea imitates another woman’s flirting
behavior to get into a club.
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Children have a strong tendency to imitate.
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Generalized imitation is a tendency to imitate a new
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This is important for teaching children with
developmental delays.
modeled behavior with no specific reinforcement for
doing so.
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There has been considerable debate.
Most studies have examined the ability of
animals to solve novel problems.
Example:
The monkey must obtain food locked
away in a box.
The animals do not copy the actions of the
model exactly.
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Simple stimulus enhancement can result in
a duplication of behavior that looks a lot
like imitation.
Example:
Kitten following its mother’s behavior.
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Some researchers believe at least some
animals are capable of true imitation.
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Examples:
Birds & Great Apes
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Some argue that past research has
utilized inappropriate criteria for judging
imitative ability in animals.
Example:
Adults performed similarly to chimpanzees when
given the same test.
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Researchers have uncovered anecdotal
evidence.
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Example:
In one camp, orangutans regularly copied the
complex actions of the humans.
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Bandura is well known for his “Bobo doll
studies” on aggression.
The research involved various types of models,
various forms of demonstrated aggression, and
children of varying ages.
Children who observed a model behaving
aggressively toward the Bobo doll tended to
demonstrate true imitation of the model’s
aggressive behavior.
The effect was even stronger if the child had
observed reinforcement of the adult’s
aggression.
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Filmed violence was as effective as live violence.
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There has been a substantial change in children’s
exposure to violent media.
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The amount of violent media viewed in childhood
is significantly correlated with aggressive and
antisocial behavior 10 years later.
The amount of television watched in childhood is
positively correlated with amount of aggressive or
violent behavior toward others.
Males are more likely to be violence – females
more likely to be victims of violence.
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Certain neurons fire when other people
behave
Amygdala handles emotional valence and
fearful memories
Without an amygdala you can’t tell who
others are feeling (especially poor
recognition of facial expressions)
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Whether written, spoken, or symbolic, we
use it to communicate everything—
meaning, motives, feelings, and beliefs.
Many animal species have evolved complex
communication systems of their own.
Example:
◦ Alarm calling of the vervet monkeys.
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Reference is the use of arbitrary symbols to
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Grammar is simply a set of rules that
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Productivity is the infinite number of
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Situational freedom means that it can be
symbolically refer to objects that exist in
the world.
control the meaning of a string of words.
expressions that can be generated to
express novel or creative ideas.
used in a variety of contexts and is not
fixed to a particular situation.
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Research has focused on teaching great apes to
talk to us.
The first researchers tried to train chimps to speak
by raising infant chimps in a home environment
(cross-fostering).
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Even though the chimpanzees thrived in the home
environment, they never learned to talk.
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“Speaking” is not something that chimps do
naturally.
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Viki had to tortuously manipulate her mouth with
her hand.
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Chimps lacked the vocal apparatus to produce
comprehensible speech.
The next approach was to teach chimpanzees
gestures.
Experimenters conducted cross-fostering studies
on chimps’ ability to learn ASL.
Food rewards seemed to focus the chimps on
producing the signs rather than on communicating
with the researchers spontaneously.
They were capable of reference, but it is unclear if
they exhibited grammar, productivity, and
situational freedom.
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The next series of experiments were
conducted in laboratory situations, using
visual symbols.
The chimps that learned Yerkish could
respond to questions and ask for objects.
The chimps mastered reference but is it
unclear if they could use grammar.
The chimps did not have much to talk
about except obtaining food.
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Parrots, gorillas and dolphins have relatively
complex brains and are social animals.
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Researchers have been training dolphins to use a
symbolic language.
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They have learned a vocabulary of symbols—ball,
pipe, surfboard, spit, fetch, bottom, and so on—
that refer to objects and actions.
California sea lions have also learned symbolic
gestures and can respond accurately to threeword sentences.
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A rule is a statement telling us that in a certain
setting, if we perform a certain behavior, then a
certain consequence will follow.
Examples:
◦ “If you drive through a red light, you will get a
ticket”;
◦ “If you study hard throughout the semester, you
will get a good grade”; and
◦ “If you are pleasant to others, they will be
pleasant to you”.
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Rules (or instructions) are extremely useful
for rapidly establishing appropriate patterns
of behavior.
Example:
◦ Teaching a person to press a button to
earn money whenever a light is turned on.
Parents devote considerable time to training
young children to follow the rules.
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Rule-governed behaviors are often less
efficient than behavior that has been
directly shaped by natural contingencies.
Example:
 Learning to play golf from a book or practice.
Rule-governed behaviors are sometimes
surprisingly insensitive to the actual
contingencies of reinforcement.
Example:
 Human participants who are told they can earn
money by pressing a button press too often.
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Verbal descriptions of contingencies
that we present to ourselves to
influence our behavior.
Say–do correspondence occurs when
there is a close match between what we
say we are going to do and what we
actually do at a later time.
Parents play a critical role in the
development of this correspondence.
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Personal rules are most effective when they establish a “bright
boundary” between acceptable and unacceptable behavior.
We are more likely to succeed when the rule specifically sets
out the conditions under which it has been obeyed or
violated.
Example:
◦ “I will study from 7:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m. this evening”
rather than “I will study today.”
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Personal process rules that specify when, where, and how a
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Research has supported this approach.
goal is to be accomplished can significantly affect the
probability of accomplishing the goal.
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In observational learning, an observer’s
behavior is altered as a result of socially
interacting with or observing the behavior
of a model.
Two simple forms are contagious behavior
and stimulus enhancement.
In classical conditioning of observational
learning, the emotional cues exhibited by a
model serve as CSs that elicit vicarious
emotional responses.
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In operant conditioning of observational
learning, the observer must acquire
information from the model.
Such acquisition depends on
◦ the consequences of the model’s behavior,
◦ the personal characteristics of the model,
◦ whether the observer is capable of understanding
and duplicating the modeled behavior, and
◦ whether the observer is explicitly reinforced for
attending to the modeled behavior.
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Translating acquired knowledge into
performance depends on whether the
observer’s performance of the behavior is
reinforced or punished.
Animals learn through observation but appear
to be unable to truly imitate.
Examples of imitation can often be explained
as examples of stimulus enhancement.
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Bandura initially warned of the power of
social learning of violent behavior in his
classic “Bobodoll studies.”
More recent evidence suggests that exposure
to media violence increases the likelihood
that a person will behave violently, or perhaps
become a victim of violence.
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Defining characteristics of language include
reference, grammar, situational freedom,
and productivity.
Research programs have attempted to teach
animals a human-like language.
Some animals can learn to use symbols to
refer to objects and actions.
The research has also shown some evidence
of grammatical ability.
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A rule is a verbal description of a contingency, and
behavior that is generated as a result of such rules
is known as rule-governed behavior.
Rules allow us to learn about contingencies without
having to directly experience those contingencies.
Rule-governed behavior is often less efficient than
behavior that has been shaped by actual
contingencies.
It is sometimes surprisingly insensitive to
contingencies.
A personal rule (or self-instruction) is a description
of a contingency that we verbalize to ourselves to
influence our own behavior.