Transcript Learning Theories

Child Psychology seeks to answer two
basic questions
 (1) Developmental changes: Describing the changes that children
go through at different ages.
BASIC DESCRIPTION AND OBSERVATION;
E.G., CHANGES IN CHILDREN'S PLAY FROM SOLITARY PLAY TO
PARALLEL PLAY TO PLAYING GAMES WITH RULES
 (2) What are the underlying processes that result in change?
For example, what strategies do children use to achieve new skills
and behaviors? Cooperation is a social strategy that facilitates
interaction with peers.
At a deeper level, developmental psychologists want to know how
important genes and environments are: THE NATURE/NURTURE
CONTROVERSY
SCIENCE AND HUMAN
INTERESTS
Scientists see children through the lenses of their theories. Scientists
are often not disinterested observers of children; they are often
influenced by:
 a.) Political beliefs e.g., a leftist egalitarian bias that everyone is
born with the same potential; or a conservative bias toward saying
that science supports the rationality of traditional sex roles.
 b.) Ethnic agendas: e.g., some scientific issues, such as whether
there are racial differences in intelligence, have political
implications. This is why books like The Bell Curve by Richard
Herrnstein and Charles Murray are so controversial.
SCIENCE AND HUMAN
INTERESTS
 c.) Career goals:



doing research that is likely to be funded by government
grants;
doing research that is likely to lead to tenure.
It's a bad idea for an assistant professor to begin focus
his or her research on politically incorrect research.
 d.) Moral agendas:

many developmental psychologists want to help
children; these people are meliorists: they want to make
the world a better place, but this often makes them
subscribe to theories that people can be easily changed
by the environment.
ARE SCIENTISTS BIASED???
Theories and Data
Scientist
Child
 See: L. A. Times article “Bias in Social Science”
 EXAMPLES OF INTENSELY CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES DEALT
WITH IN THIS COURSE:
(1) RACE AND IQ (CH. 10)
(2) GENETIC INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE (CH. 2 AND CH. 10)
(2) SEX DIFFERENCES (CH. 13)
(3) EFFECTS OF DAY CARE (CH. 11)
Themes of Development
 Major theories take a position on these
themes; e.g., Nature vs. Nurture
 Main theoretical views guide research
Themes of Development: Biological versus
Environmental Influences: 1. Nature vs. Nurture
 1.) Biological versus Environmental Influences


John Watson, early 20th century: Environment is
everything.
Arnold Gesell in the 1930s: Development determined
by an 'inner timetable which is produced by genes.

Gesell is a Maturationist
 Maturation = Genetically determined process of growth at
unfolds naturally over development. Think of cognitive
ability as growing just like children grow in height.
 SINCE 1980, MORE EMPHASIS ON NATURE, BUT A GREAT
DEAL OF CONTROVERSY.
Eight Themes of Development: 1. Biological versus
Environmental Influences: Nature vs. Nurture
 Most psychologists now tend to be
interactionists: E.g., there are interactions
between the child's genetic tendencies
toward aggression and the child's being
exposed to violence on TV. Violent TV has a
greater effect on children who are
genetically inclined toward aggression.
Themes of Development: 2. Qualitative
Versus Qualitative Change
 QUANTITATIVE CHANGE: A MEASURABLE CHANGE
OF AMOUNT (E.G., CHANGES IN HEIGHT, OR
CHANGES IN LEARNING) ASSOCIATED WITH NONSTAGE THEORIES; (When you learn something new
you don't become a different person; you have simply
added to your knowledge in a quantitative way.)
 QUALITATIVE CHANGE: A CHANGE OF TYPE (E.G.,
THE CHANGE FROM A CATERPILLAR TO A
BUTTERFLY) ASSOCIATED WITH STAGE THEORIES;
QUALITATIVE CHANGES ARE FUNDAMENTAL,
REORGANIZATIONAL CHANGES.
Themes of Development: 2. Qualitative
Versus Qualitative Change
 Whether development involves quantitative or
qualitative change depends on the power of the
lens we use in examining changes across
development."
 If we look over a long period of time
(several years), the differences seem large,
qualitative and step-like.
 If we look over a short period of time (a
few months), the differences are small,
quantitative and smooth.
Themes of Development: 3. Connectedness versus
Disconnectedness
 DEVELOPMENT IS CONNECTED IF THE SAME
PROCESSES PERSIST THROUGH DEVELOPMENT
(QUANTITATIVE CHANGE)
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Learning, attraction to novelty
Process may be elaborated, but it is not a
new process.
 DEVELOPMENT IS DISCONNECTED IF NEW
PROCESSES EMERGE AT DIFFERENT AGES
(QUALITATIVE CHANGE)

Puberty, stage shifts in cognitive ability
Themes of Development: 4. Smooth, gradual change
versus step-like, abrupt change
 SMOOTH CHANGE (ASSOCIATED WITH
NON-STAGE THEORIES
Themes of Development: 4. Smooth, gradual change
versus step-like, abrupt change
 Step-Like Change
(Associated with Stage Theories)
Formal Operational
Concrete Operational
Preoperational Stage
Sensorimotor Stage
Themes of Development 2-4 define Continuity and
Discontinuity

Continuity: each new event builds on
earlier experiences in orderly way or
gradual improvement.
 Change is Quantitative, Connected,
and Smooth

Discontinuity: development occurs in
discrete steps or stages; each stage is
qualitatively new set of behaviors

Change is Qualitative,
Disconnected, and Step-Like
Themes of Development: 5. Normative versus Ideographic
Development

NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT: THE UNIVERSAL COMMONALITIES OF
CHILDREN'S DEVELOPMENT (E.G., WALKING, TALKING, STAGES);


IDIOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT: DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES


OFTEN VIEWED AS RESULTING FROM BIOLOGICAL UNIVERSALS (E.G.,
ARNOLD GESELL);
SOURCE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES CAN BE NATURE AND/OR
NURTURE;
ALL POLITICIZED CONTROVERSY IN PSYCHOLOGY INVOLVES
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Themes of Development: 6. Active,
passive, and transactional models
 A. ACTIVE: CHILD ACTIVELY APPROACHES, EXPLORES, OR
INFLUENCES ENVIRONMENT


A CURIOUS CHILD EXPLORES A NEW TOY
A CHILD GENETICALLY PRONE TO AGGRESSION
PICKS FIGHTS AND LIKES VIOLENT TV
Child → Environment
Themes of Development: 6. Active,
passive, and transactional models
B. TRANSACTIONAL MODEL:
CHILD INFLUENCES ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENT
INFLUENCES CHILD; LIKE A CONVERSATION.
 PREMATURE CHILD IS EXTREMELY IRRITABLE; THIS
MAKES CAREGIVING DIFFICULT AND RESULTS IN
FRUSTRATED PARENT; PARENT MORE LIKELY TO
ABUSE CHILD
 A CHILD GENETICALLY PRONE TO AGGRESSION
PROVOKES STRONG DISCIPLINE FROM PARENT,
MAKING HIM MORE AGGRESSIVE
C→E→C→E
Themes of Development: 6. Active,
passive, and transactional models
 C. PASSIVE: CHILD PASSIVELY INFLUENCED BY
ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES;
 REINFORCEMENT IN CLASSICAL BEHAVIORISM
 NORMAL CHILD IS ABUSED BY CRAZY PARENT
E→C
 NO ONE MODEL IS CORRECT. DIFFERENT
DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES ARE BETTER DESCRIBED
BY DIFFERENT MODELS.
THIS IS THE CASE WITH ALL OF THESE ISSUES.
 HOWEVER, MOST PSYCHOLOGISTS DE-EMPHASIZE
THE PASSIVE MODEL.
Themes of Development: 7. Intrinsic
versus Extrinsic Motivation
 INTRINSIC: DOING THINGS FOR THEIR
OWN SAKE

E.G., STUDYING BECAUSE YOU'RE
INTERESTED
 EXTRINSIC: DOING THINGS IN ORDER TO
GAIN REWARDS OR AVOID PUNISHMENTS

E.G., STUDYING TO AVOID PUNISHMENT
Theoretical Perspectives on
Development
 Two functions of theories
 Help integrate information into coherent,
interesting, plausible accounts of how
children develop.


Social learning theory
Generate testable hypotheses or
predictions about child behavior
 Example: Evolutionary theory predicts
males more prone to dominance and
risk taking.
Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory
 1.) DEVELOPMENT THE RESULT OF QUALITATIVE
CHANGES IN THE STRUCTURE OF CHILDREN'S
THINKING.
 2.) COGNITIVE STRUCTURE = AN INTERRELATED
SYSTEM OF KNOWLEDGE THAT GUIDES BEHAVIOR
 EXAMPLE: SCHEME = A COGNITIVE STRUCTURE OF
INFANCY;


A SCHEME CONSISTS OF SKILLED, FLEXIBLE ACTION
PATTERNS THROUGH WHICH CHILD UNDERSTANDS
THE WORLD;
BALL SCHEME INCLUDES WHAT YOU CAN DO WITH A
BALL, ETC.;

SCHEME OF BALL CHANGES OVER DEVELOPMENT IN
A QUALITATIVE MANNER
Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory
 3.) FUNCTIONS: INNATE BIOLOGICAL
PROCESSES UNDERLYING COGNITION


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a.) ORGANIZATION: THE INNATE NEED TO MAKE
SENSE OF WORLD AND INTEGRATE NEW
INFORMATION WITH OLD
b.) ASSIMILATION: INTERPRETING NEW
EXPERIENCES IN TERMS OF EXISTING
COGNITIVE STRUCTURES
c.) ACCOMMODATION: CHANGING EXISTING
COGNITIVE STRUCTURES TO FIT WITH NEW
EXPERIENCES
Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory
Adapt to new
information
Assimilation
Reinterpret new
experiences so they
fit into old ideas –
existing ideas don’t
change, stay same
Accommodation
Revamp old ideas so
they can adapt to new –
change current ways of
thinking/ideas so as to
add new knowledge
Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory
4.) CONSTRUCTIVISM: CHILDREN CREATE THEIR OWN WORLDS;
INTERPRET WORLD AS FUNCTION OF THEIR STAGE.
A stage is like having a pair of colored glasses:
It makes you see the world differently;
Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory
5.) METHOD: CLINICAL METHOD: A SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
AIMED AT GETTING AT HOW THE CHILD IS THINKING
Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental)
Theory
 6.) EGOCENTRISM: CHILDREN TEND TO HAVE DIFFICULTY
SEEING THINGS FROM OTHERS' POINTS OF VIEW.


E.g., 4-year-old can’t understand other child’s point of
view about a toy they both want, or thinks that a visual
display will look the same from a different viewpoint.
WITH AGE, CHILDREN GRADUALLY DECENTER,
but even we adults are somewhat egocentric.
Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory
 7.) YOUNG CHILDREN ARE LESS FLEXIBLE IN THEIR
THINKING;


e.g., moral rules are absolute: “Stealing is bad,”
Sex roles are absolute: “Girls wear dresses”; there are
no exceptions.
Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development
Birth to
years
2
Sensori-motor
Uses senses and
motor skills, items
known by use
Object
permanence
learned
2-6 yrs
Preoperational
Symbolic thinking,
language used;
egocentric thinking
Imagination/
experience grow,
child de-centers
7-11 yrs
Concrete
operational
Logic applied, has
objective/rational
interpretations
Conservation,
numbers, ideas,
classifications
12 yrs to
adulthood
Formal
operational
Thinks abstractly,
hypothetical ideas
(broader issues)
Ethics, politics,
social/moral
issues explored
Focus on organization and adaptation
Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory
 8.) CRITERIA FOR A STAGE ACCORDING
TO PIAGET:




a.) QUALITATIVE CHANGE;
b.) UNIVERSAL
c. INVARIANT SEQUENCE
d.) STRUCTURED WHOLE:
Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory
 Structured Whole: CHILDREN IN A PARTICULAR STAGE
THINK THE SAME WAY ABOUT MORALITY AND THEIR
FRIENDS AS THEY THINK ABOUT STICKS AND STONES.
 This happens because children's cognitive mechanisms
develop in sync with each other.
 At any age there is a sort of stereotypical way that children
think. You might say of a child that he "thinks like a four year
old".
 According to Piaget, children exhibit the same strengths and
weaknesses in their thinking no matter what the subject
matter;

Whether a child is thinking about what makes something
morally good or what happens when you pour water from a tall,
thin beaker into a short, fat beaker, the same age typical
mechanisms are on display.
Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory
 Stages are therefore DOMAIN GENERAL as opposed to
DOMAIN SPECIFIC.
 Domain specific mechanisms take in only a very narrow
and specific range of information and each mechanism is
designed to solve a very specific problem.
 For example, one aspect of the human fear system is that it
is designed to respond to images of snakes with fear.
 This system is designed to deal with information on
snakes in a reflexive way but does not respond to other
stimuli (e.g., tasty food).
 Domain general mechanisms are not restricted to a narrow
range of information and are not designed to solve any
particular problem.
 Stages are domain general because they are are very
general mechanisms designed to solve a wide range of
problems--in fact, all the problems the child encounters,
from morality, to religion, to figuring out the properties of
sets of objects.
Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory

Stages are therefore DOMAIN GENERAL as opposed to DOMAIN SPECIFIC.


Domain specific mechanisms take in only a very narrow and specific range of
information and each mechanism is designed to solve a very specific
problem.
For example, one aspect of the human fear system is that it is designed to
respond to images of snakes with fear.


This system is designed to deal with information on snakes in a reflexive way but
does not respond to other stimuli (e.g., tasty food).
Domain general mechanisms are not restricted to a narrow range of information
and are not designed to solve any particular problem.

Stages are domain general because they are are very general mechanisms
designed to solve a wide range of problems--in fact, all the problems the child
encounters, from morality, to religion, to figuring out the properties of sets of
objects.
The next section of the course will deal with evolutionary psychology which
emphasizes domain specific mechanisms and even denies the existence of
domain general mechanisms. And after that, I will present a perspective that
shows that the domain specific perspective can be combined with the
domain general perspective.
Standing of Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory on
the seven developmental issues
 1.) NATURE-NURTURE: INTERACTION BETWEEN
CHILD AND ENVIRONMENT; ABILITIES SUCH AS
ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION ARE
INNATE; BUT DEVELOPMENT OCCURS BECAUSE
THE CHILD CONSTANTLY MUST ACCOMMODATE
TO NEW ENVIRONMENTS
 2.) DEVELOPMENT INVOLVES QUALITATIVE
CHANGES: COMPLETE RE-ORGANIZATION WITH
NEW STAGE.
Standing of Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory on
the seven developmental issues
 3. DEVELOPMENT IS DISCONNECTED: NEW
PROCESSES COME ON LINE AS CHILD ENTERS NEW
STAGE.
 4. DEVELOPMENT IS STEP-LIKE AND ABRUPT.
Standing of Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory on
the seven developmental issues
 5.) CULTURAL UNIVERSALS (NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT)
ARE EMPHASIZED: ALL CHILDREN GO THROUGH THE
STAGES
 6.) ACTIVE CHILD: CHILD IS INNATELY CURIOUS AND
EXPLORATORY
 7.) MOTIVATION IS INTRINSIC; CHILD ENJOYS FIGURING
OUT THE WORLD
Learning Theories: Behaviorism
Behaviorism: focuses on learning of
behavior, not unobservable factors or
motivations
 Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s dogs;
Watson classically conditions fear of rats
in a baby.

Operant Conditioning: Skinner’s pigeons
Learning Theories: Cognitive Social
Learning Theory: Albert Bandura

Cognitive Social Learning Theory:
children learn through operant and
classical conditioning, from observation
and imitation of role models, and verbal
instructions

VICARIOUS CONSEQUENCES:
CONSEQUENCES OF A MODEL'S BEHAVIOR
THAT AFFECTS THE OBSERVER
(VICARIOUS REWARD AND VICARIOUS
PUNISHMENT
Learning Theories: Cognitive Social
Learning Theory: Albert Bandura

ACQUISITION/PERFORMANCE
DISTINCTION:
 1.) CHILDREN EXPOSED TO AGGRESSIVE
MODELS WHO WERE REWARDED
OR PUNISHED FOR THEIR BEHAVIOR;
 2.) CHILDREN IMITATED REWARDED
AGGRESSION BUT NOT PUNISHED
AGGRESSION;
 3.) CHILDREN WERE LATER ABLE TO
IMITATE THE PUNISHED
BEHAVIORS IF REWARDED TO DO SO;

CONCLUSION: ACQUISITION IS
INDEPENDENT OF PERFORMANCE
Learning Theories: Cognitive Social
Learning Theory: Albert Bandura

METHOD: LABORATORY ANALOG
EXPERIMENT; FIND ANALOG OF REAL
WORLD BEHAVIOR THAT CAN BE STUDIED IN
THE LABORATORY

CRITIQUE: IS ANALOG EXPERIMENT
ECOLOGICALLY VALID?
 I.E., CAN ONE EXTRAPOLATE RESULTS
OBTAINED IN LABORATORY TO REAL
WORLD; E. G., AGGRESSION
Modeled Behavior
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Fig. 1-2
Matching Behavior
Learning Theories: Cognitive Social
Learning Theory: Albert Bandura
 GENERAL CRITICISM: IS SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY A
DEVELOPMENTAL
THEORY? WHY IS AGE IMPORTANT?
Bandura would argue that age is indeed relevant because age
affects that processes that are involved in social learning.
Bandura proposes four processes as relevant to social learning:
Attention, Retention, Production, and Motivation. All of these
undergo age changes; they all develop.
Learning Theories: Cognitive Social
Learning Theory: Albert Bandura
1. Attention: Children gradually improve in their ability to
pay attention.

This affects social learning because they pay better
attention to models. One couldn't lecture to
kindergartners and expect them to pay attention.
2. Retention: Children gradually improve their ability to
remember things they have seen or experienced.

This affects social learning because children are better
able to remember what models did.
Learning Theories: Cognitive Social
Learning Theory: Albert Bandura
3. Production: Children's abilities gradually improve.
 This means that they are able to produce more of what
they see and try to imitate. Obviously, young children
can't imitate behaviors that they are physically unable to
reproduce any more than I can dunk a basketball just by
watching someone else do it.
4. Motivation: Motivation changes as children get older.
 For example, older children are probably more concerned
about how others see them and more motivated to be
socially acceptable. This might affect what types of
models they would pay special attention to. A teenager
might pay special attention to the behavior of other kids
who are seen as cool.
Modeled Behavior
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Fig. 1-2
Matching Behavior
Standing of Cognitive Social Learning Theory on the seven
developmental issues
 1.) NATURE vs. NURTURE: CSLT PROPOSES ALL
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ARE DUE TO
DIFFERENT LEARNING CONTINGENCIES; i.e.,
NURTURE
 2.) DEVELOPMENT INVOLVES QUANTITATIVE
CHANGES: Children know more stuff as they get
older.
Standing of Cognitive Social Learning Theory on the seven
developmental issues
 3. Development is connected: There are no new
processes but simply elaboration of old processes.
 4. DEVELOPMENT IS STEP-LIKE AND ABRUPT.
Standing of Cognitive Social Learning Theory on the
Seven Developmental Issues
 5.) EMPHASIS ON IDIOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT: Why is one
child more aggressive than another?
 6.) CLASSICAL BEHAVIORISM VIEWED CHILD AS PASSIVE;
HOWEVER, CSLT SEES THE CHILD AS 'MODERATELY
ACTIVE' BECAUSE OF THE IMPORTANCE OF CERTAIN
CHILD CHARACTERISTICS IN AFFECTING HOW CHILDREN
PROCESS THE ENVIRONMENT (ATTENTION, RETENTION,
PRODUCTION, MOTIVATION)
 7.) MOTIVATION IS EXTRINSIC; CHILD LEARNS IN ORDER
TO GET REWARDS OR AVOID PUNISHMENT.
DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY
 DST sees child development as a system of
interacting parts. This is most like the
transactional model mentioned above:
everything affects everything else and it's all
very complicated. The child is constantly
changing the environment and the
environment is constantly changing the child.
Dynamic Systems Theory
Dynamic Systems Theory
 Example: The family: if parents have a bad relationship, it may have
effects on the child.


Child psychologists often want to bring the whole family in if
one child is having a problem; dad's drinking problem affects
family finances and mom's mood, resulting in harsher
punishment and fewer opportunities like after-school
tutoring.
So all these things affect the child: everything affects
everything else.
 The child inherits not only the parents' genes but also the parents'
environment and from the moment of conception they are constantly
interacting.
Dynamic Systems Theory
 Characteristics of Systems Theory (from Table 1-2). The ones I
emphasize are:



1.) Complexity: Each part of the system is unique but related to
the other parts of the system. Example: Family members
2.) Wholeness and Organization: The whose system is more than
the sum of its parts. Its collective behavior can be described in
terms that do not necessarily apply to the system's parts and their
interrelationships. To study a family, you must do more than study
an the characteristics of each member separately and the
relationships between them, but the organization of all family
relationships and the whole family as an interacting unit. See
example above.
3.) Equifinality: Although the dynamics of certain kinds of systems
may be quite different, over time they tend to develop similarities.
Family systems across different societies share many common
characteristics (like parental affection), but the particular customs
of a culture may dictate quite different expressions of these
charateristics (giving a child a car as a graduation present in the
U.S. versus giving a child a bow and arrow in New Guinea.
Theoretical Perspectives on Development:
Ethology: Konrad Lorenz, Niko Tinbergen
 CLASSICAL ETHOLOGICAL THEORY: Ethology studies
the behavior of animals and humans from an
evolutionary perspective
 BEHAVIOR AS AN ADAPTATION (HAS SURVIVAL VALUE)
 ADAPTATION = A BEHAVIOR OR
MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURE DESIGNED BY
NATURAL SELECTION IN ORDER TO PERFORM A
PARTICULAR FUNCTION
 EXAMPLE: ATTACHMENT IS A BEHAVIORAL
SYSTEM DESIGNED BY NATURAL SELECTION TO
KEEP THE BABY CLOSE TO ITS MOTHER
 Animals have thousands of adaptations.
Theoretical Perspectives on Development:
Ethology
 MUCH OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR IS INSTINCTIVE
 INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR = :
1.) BEHAVIOR OCCURS IN ALL MEMBERS OF
SPECIES (= SPECIES-TYPICAL BEHAVIOR)
2.) NO LEARNING REQUIRED; OFTEN BEHAVIOR
CAN DEVELOP WITHOUT ANIMAL EVER
EXPERIENCING OTHER MEMBERS OF THE
SPECIES
3.) STEREOTYPED BEHAVIOR
Theoretical Perspectives on Development:
Ethology
 Example: Spider webs. All spiders of a certain species are able
to spin their particular type
of web.
 They don't learn this by classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, or social
learning.
 Young spiders may never see other members of the same
species, but they are
able to spin a web as soon as necessary when they reach
the appropriate developmental stage.
 Their webs all look basically alike; they are stereotyped.
Theoretical Perspectives on Development:
Ethology
 Ethology emphasize how animal’s behavior is
adapted to the context (evolutionary
contextualism).

BEHAVIOR IS ELICITED IN PARTICULAR
CONTEXTS: E.G., AN ANIMAL MAY BE
AGGRESSIVE ONLY DURING MATING SEASON, OR
ONLY WITH OTHER MALES
Theoretical Perspectives on Development:
Ethology
 FIXED OR MODAL ACTION PATTERN
(FAP): A SEQUENCE OF BEHAVIORS
ELICITED BY A SPECIFIC STIMULUS;
E.G. AGGRESSION IN FIGHTING FISH.

When the fighting fish sees the red belly of
another male during breeding season while
he is defending his territory, he will attack
in a stereotyped manner. There are a great
many such examples, ranging from mating
rituals to parenting behaviors.
Theoretical Perspectives on Development:
Ethology
 INNATE RELEASING MECHANISM (IRM):
AN IRM IS A MECHANISM THAT TRIGGERS AN INNATE
SEQUENCE OR PATTERN OF BEHAVIOR AS A RESULT OF
PERCEIVING A STIMULUS;



E.G., RED BELLY OF ANOTHER MALE TRIGGERS
AGGRESSION IN FIGHTING
FISH. \
IF IRM PRESENT, THEN FAP WILL BE EMITTED.
THE IRM IS A PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISM IN THE
FISH. IT RESPONDS TO A CERTAIN STIMULUS, SUCH AS
THE RED BELLY OF ANOTHER MALE, AND TRIGGERS A
PARTICULAR BEHAVIORAL SEQUENCE, IN THIS CASE,
AGGRESSION.
Theoretical Perspectives on Development:
Ethology
 LIKE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY,
ETHOLOGY EMPHASIZES UNIVERSALS OF
DEVELOPMENT (NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT:

ALL CHILDREN DEVELOP THE BASIC EMOTIONS
IN THE SAME SEQUENCE IN ALL CULTURES: JOY,
SADNESS, DISTRESS, ANGER, FEAR, ETC.
Theoretical Perspectives on Development:
Ethology
 METHODOLOGY: NATURALISTIC
OBSERVATION; STRONGLY OPPOSED TO
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS UNTIL
BASIC NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
COMPLETED.

This was a major departure from both
Cognitive Social Learning Theory (lab based
experiments) and Cognitive Developmental
Theory (interviews)
Theoretical Perspectives on Development:
Ethology
 IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS OF ETHOLOGY:
 1.) NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
 2.) THINK OF CHILDREN'S BEHAVIOR AS
INCLUDING A SET OF BIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS
FOR SURVIVAL OVER EVOLUTIONARY TIME
 3.) STUDY BEHAVIORS THAT ALSO OCCUR IN
ANIMALS (DOMINANCE, AGGRESSION,
ATTACHMENT, early parent-offspring relationships)
 4.) FOCUS ON NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR:
EMOTIONAL EXPRESSIONS, THREAT GESTURES,
POSTURE, ETC.
 5.) CRITICAL PERIOD OR SENSITIVE PERIOD.
Theoretical Perspectives on Development:
Ethology: Sensitive or Critical Periods
 DEFINITION: A PERIOD IN DEVELOPMENT WHEN
ORGANISM IS MOST OPEN TO ENVIRONMENTAL
INFLUENCES (I. E., HAS GREATEST PLASTICITY)
HIGH
PLASTICITY
LOW
______________________________
AGE
 EXAMPLES OF CRITICAL OR SENSITIVE PERIODS:
IMPRINTING IN DUCKS;
ATTACHMENT IN HUMANS;
EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENT ON IQ(?)
PRENATAL EFFECTS OF TERATOGENS (E.G., ALCOHOL)
ON BABIES
Sensitive Periods for Teratogens
Ethology: Sensitive or Critical Periods:
Orphaned Baby Hippo adopts Turtle as
Mom
Ethology: Sensitive or Critical Periods:
Orphaned Baby Hippo adopts Turtle as
Mom
Ethology: Sensitive or Critical Periods:
Orphaned Baby Hippo adopts Turtle as
Mom
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
LEDA COSMIDES AND JOHN TOOBY
INTERESTED IN 'NATURAL COMPETENCIES'; i.e., ABILITIES
TO SEE, SPEAK, FIND SOMEONE BEAUTIFUL, FEAR
DISEASE, FALL IN LOVE, RECIPROCATE A FAVOR,
EXPERIENCE MORAL OUTRAGE.
 These are universals—aspects of normative
development. All people have these abilities.

Not interested in individual differences—why one child is
nicer or more aggressive than another
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
LEDA COSMIDES AND JOHN TOOBY
 THESE ACTITIVIES ARE SUPPORTED BY A HETEROGENEOUS
ARRAY OF COMPLEX COMPUTATIONAL MACHINERY; i.e., A SET
OF MENTAL ADAPTATIONS THAT EVOLVED TO SOLVE
PARTICULAR ADAPTIVE PROBLEMS IN THE HUMAN
ENVIRONMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTEDNESS (EEA).


EEA = ENVIRONMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTEDNESS =
ENVIRONMENT WHICH HUMANS EVOLVED IN AND WHICH
PRESENTED THE SET OF PROBLEMS THAT WERE SOLVED BY
THE SET OF HUMAN ADAPTATIONS.
EXAMPLE: ATTACHMENT IS AN ADAPTATION THAT SOLVED
THE PROBLEM PRESENTED BY AN ANCESTRAL ENVIRONMENT
WITH PREDATORS AND OTHER DANGERS TO INFANTS. THIS
ANCESTRAL ENVIRONMENT IS THE HUMAN EEA.
Levels of an Evolutionary Analysis
ADAPTIVE PROBLEM: Males must discriminate
appropriate mate
↕
COGNITIVE PROGRAM: Find young healthy women
attractive
↕
NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS: Brain mechanism
responsible for positive
appraisal of healthy, young
female
Levels of an Evolutionary Analysis
•
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY'S RESEARCH PROGRAM:
INFERENCES CAN BE MADE FROM ONE LEVEL TO
ANOTHER.
• THEORIES OF ADAPTIVE PROBLEMS (e.g., women must
discriminate appropriate mate) GUIDE SEARCH FOR
COGNITIVE PROGRAMS AND ULTIMATELY FOR A
NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS.
•
Finding a cognitive program for detecting cheaters
might lead one to ask what adaptive problem it solves
and what neuropsychological program produces it.
EP REJECTS THE STANDARD SOCIAL
SCIENCE MODEL (SSSM)
 SSSM: MIND IS BLANK SLATE: THE ONLY EVOLVED STRUCTURES
ARE GENERAL PURPOSE LEARNING DEVICES;

Cosmides and Tooby attack an extreme position — the
position that there are no specialized systems in the
human mind. They term this the Standard Social
Science Model. Still, there are probably more than a few
psychologists who accept the SSSM.
 THE CONTENT OF THE HUMAN MIND IS NOT PRE-DETERMINED
OR INFLUENCED BY OUR EVOLUTIONARY PAST


IN PSYCHOLOGY: LOCKE AND HUME, WATSON AND
SKINNER, TO MODERN SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
(BANDURA)
IN ANTHROPOLOGY: 'CULTURAL DETERMINISM' -- THE
BOASIAN SCHOOL
EP REJECTS THE STANDARD SOCIAL
SCIENCE MODEL (SSSM)
 The SSSM proposes that the same basic mechanisms are
responsible
LEARNING LANGUAGE
RECOGNIZING EMOTIONS
NEGOTIATING FRIENDSHIPS
FALLING IN LOVE
DEALING WITH CHILDREN
 EP fundamentally rejects this premise
 Different mechanisms are responsible for different
tasks.
EP: Different Tools for different tasks;
SSSM: One tool for all tasks
The Swiss Army Knife Analogy
FIVE PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTIONARY
PSYCHOLOGY
 (1) THE BRAIN IS A PHYSICAL SYSTEM. IT FUNCTIONS AS A
COMPUTER DESIGNED TO GENERATE BEHAVIOR
APPROPRIATE TO YOUR ENVIRONMENTAL
CIRCUMSTANCES.


Like Innate Releasing Mechanism in ethology
The psychological mechanism is responsive to
particular environmental contingencies.
 If E1 occurs, do x; if E2 occurs, do y.
FIVE PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTIONARY
PSYCHOLOGY

(2) OUR NEURAL CIRCUITS WERE DESIGNED BY NS TO SOLVE
PROBLEMS THAT OUR ANCESTORS FACED DURING HUMAN
EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY.


MORAL: ENVIRONMENTS DO NOT SPECIFY APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR;
BRAIN VIA NS DOES.


EXAMPLE: HUMANS AND DUNG FLIES RESPOND DIFFERENTLY TO
FECES.
BRAIN IS NATURALLY CONSTRUCTED COMPUTATIONAL SYSTEM WHOSE
FUNCTION IS TO SOLVE ADAPTIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING
PROBLEMS.
ADAPTIVE PROBLEMS ARE

(a) RECURRENT IN OUR EVOLUTIONARY PAST;


Natural selection can only work on problems that occur repeatedly over
very long periods of time.
(b) THEIR SOLUTION INCREASED FITNESS IN THE EEA.
FIVE PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTIONARY
PSYCHOLOGY
 (3) WE ACCOMPLISH DIFFICULT TASKS EASILY
AND UNCONSCIOUSLY. THE CIRCUITRY IS
COMPLEX, BUT WE ARE NOT CONSCIOUS OF IT.


CONSCIOUSNESS IS LIKE BEING PRESIDENT:
YOU ARE AWARE OF HIGH LEVEL CONCLUSIONS
PASSED ON BY THOUSANDS OF LOWER LEVEL
MECHANISMS.
EXAMPLE: VISION: CELLS SPECIALIZED TO
DETECT MOTION, VERTICAL SURFACES,
HORIZONTAL SURFACES; CIRCUITS SPECIALIZED
FOR JUDGING DISTANCE, DIRECTION OF
MOTION.
FIVE PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTIONARY
PSYCHOLOGY
 (4) DIFFERENT NEURAL CIRCUITS ARE SPECIALIZED FOR
SOLVING DIFFERENT ADAPTIVE PROBLEMS.
 VISION, HEARING, LOVE, MORAL OUTRAGE HAVE
SEPARATE CIRCUITS. THE BRAIN IS A SET OF MINICOMPUTERS (MODULES) DESIGNED TO SOLVE
SPECIFIC PROBLEMS. THESE MODULES ARE
FUNCTIONALLY INTEGRATED TO PRODUCE
BEHAVIOR.
 EXAMPLE: INFANTS AT 2-1/2 MONTHS HAVE
'PRIVILEGED HYPOTHESES': i.e., THEY ASSUME
WORLD IS MADE UP OF RIGID OBJECTS CONTINUOUS
IN SPACE AND TIME; THEY ARE SURPRISED IF ONE
OBJECT APPEARS TO GO THROUGH ANOTHER, ETC.
FIVE PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTIONARY
PSYCHOLOGY
 4 (cont.) THE BRAIN CONSISTS OF CIRCUITS FOR
LEARNING AND REASONING. THESE CIRCUITS
 (a) ARE DOMAIN SPECIFIC: EACH MECHANISM IS
SPECIALIZED FOR A PARTICULAR DOMAIN (Vision,
Love, Sexual attraction, Emotion recognition, etc.)
 (b) SOLVE SPECIFIC ADAPTIVE PROBLEMS;
 (c) DEVELOP IN ALL NORMAL HUMANS (UNIVERSALS);
 (d) DEVELOP WITHOUT CONSCIOUS EFFORT OR
FORMAL INSTRUCTION;
 (e) APPLIED WITHOUT CONSCIOUS AWARENESS OF
UNDERLYING LOGIC;
FIVE PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTIONARY
PSYCHOLOGY
 (5) OUR MODERN SKULLS HOUSE A STONE-AGE MIND.


WE LIVED AS HUNTER-GATHERERS FOR 99.9% OF
OUR 10 MILLION YEAR EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY. OUR
ADAPTATIONS ARE DESIGNED TO SOLVE THE
PROBLEMS OF HUNTERS AND GATHERERS.
OUR ADAPTATIONS DO NOT NECESSARILY GENERATE
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR NOW.



OUR ADAPTATIONS MAY NOT PRODUCE FIT BEHAVIOR IN
CONTEMPORARY ENVIRONMENTS.
Mismatch Theory
EXAMPLES: PEOPLE LOVE TO EAT SWEET, SALT, AND
FAT; BUT IN MODERN ENVIRONMENT OF FOOD
SURPLUSES AND REFINED SUGAR, THIS MAY LEAD TO
HEALTH PROBLEMS.
Evolutionary Psychology and Learning
 EP: THE BRAIN DOES NOT POSSESS CONTENT-FREE
LEARNING DEVICES AS PROPOSED BY BEHAVIORISTS
AND SOCIAL LEARNING THEORISTS.
 PREPARED LEARNING: WE EASILY LEARN TO FEAR
SNAKES, BUT NOT GUNS OR ELECTRIC SOCKETS.



Garcia: RATS EASILY LEARN TO AVOID POISONED FOOD
BUT HAVE GREAT DIFFICULTY ASSOCIATING ILLNESS
WITH LIGHTS OR SOUNDS.
WE SHOULD ASK: 'WHICH INSTINCTS CAUSED THE
LEARNING?', NOT WHETHER THE BEHAVIOR IS THE
RESULT OF LEARNING OR INSTINCT.
Objection: HOW CAN C & T EXPLAIN THAT WE CAN IN
FACT LEARN TO FEAR GUNS AND ELECTRIC OUTLETS,
FIX TV SETS, IMITATE NOVEL BEHAVIORS, AND RATHER
EASILY AT THAT?
Evolutionary Psychology: The Bottom
Line
• The mind is composed of a large number of mental
modules each designed to solve a specific problem.
•
•
•
For example, there is one mechanism for perceiving
three dimensions, another for anger, another for falling
in love.
The mind is like a Swiss Army knife; i.e., it has lots of
specialized tools.
There is no such thing as general intelligence, general
learning, or any other general ability to solve problems.
Neo-Piagetian Approaches: Synthesis between Piaget
(domain general) and Evolutionary Psychology (domain
specific)
 NEO-PIAGETIAN APPROACHES COMBINE DOMAIN-SPECIFIC
MODULES (CONSISTENT WITH EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY)
WITH DOMAIN-GENERAL MECHANISMS OF TRADITIONAL
PIAGETIAN THEORY.
 AN IMPORTANT CANDIDATE FOR THE MOST IMPORTANT DOMAIN
GENERAL MECHANISMS ARE THOSE ASSOCIATED WITH
GENERAL INTELLIGENCE:

WORKING MEMORY
SPEED OF PROCESSING

ABILITY TO INHIBIT IRRELEVANT RESPONSES.

Neo-Piagetian Approaches: Synthesis between Piaget
(domain general) and Evolutionary Psychology (domain
specific): Figure 1
Neo-Piagetian Approaches: Synthesis between Piaget
(domain general) and Evolutionary Psychology (domain
specific): Figure 1
•
•
The figure represents the results of factor analysis of cognitive ability
tests.
Factor analysis is a correlational procedure that basically discovers what
traits co-vary together.
•
•
•
The evolutionary psychology idea is that a spatial reasoning module
underlies this spatial ability factor.
•
•
•
These results show several middle level factors (spatial, numerical,
social/verbal, etc.) and a higher order factor (g).
Items related to spatial reasoning tend to correlate with each other,
resulting in the middle level spatial factor.
The spatial reasoning module has all the characteristics of modules: It
takes in only a very specialized type of stimulation (related to objects in
space), and it has only very specific outputs (spatial reasoning).
This means it is domain specific (= able to deal with only one type of
stimulation.)
The same could be said for all of the other middle level factors.
Neo-Piagetian Approaches: Synthesis between Piaget
(domain general) and Evolutionary Psychology (domain
specific): Figure 1
Neo-Piagetian Approaches: Synthesis between Piaget
(domain general) and Evolutionary Psychology (domain
specific): Figure 1
•
•
g, the higher order factor, is correlated with all of the middle level
factors.
• people higher on g perform better on all of the middle level
abilities.
• This means that the mechanisms underlying g are domain
general. (Why?)
The psychological mechanisms underlying g include domain general
abilities such as working memory and speed of processing.
• These abilities are domain general and non-modular because
they are not restricted to specific types of inputs and not
restricted to specific types of outputs.
• Working memory can be used with an incredible variety of
inputs, from number lists to rotating figures in space; so it is not
domain specific.
Neo-Piagetian Approaches: Synthesis between Piaget
(domain general) and Evolutionary Psychology (domain
specific): Figure 1
Neo-Piagetian Approaches: Synthesis between Piaget
(domain general) and Evolutionary Psychology (domain
specific): Figure 1
• g is like a computer chip.
• Computers with a faster computer chip outperform
computers with slower chips.
• This means they run all your software faster, whether
it’s graphics or word processing.
• In this analogy, the graphics and word processing
programs are like modules—they have specific inputs
and outputs.
• g is the domain general, non-modular processor that
affects the speed and efficiency of the domain specific
modules underlying the middle level factors in the
diagram.
Neo-Piagetian Approaches: Synthesis between Piaget
(domain general) and Evolutionary Psychology (domain
specific): Figure 2
Neo-Piagetian Approaches: Synthesis between Piaget
(domain general) and Evolutionary Psychology (domain
specific): Figure 2
•
The core capacities are domain general: speed, span, and
control.
•
•
•
These are the same as processing speed, working
memory, and the ability to inhibit irrelevant responses
from previous slide.
Specialized capacity spheres are the domain specific modules:
spatial, verbal social, numerical, etc.
Stage Transition Zones: Times when children’s core capacities
change rapidly (= stages).
IQ TESTING: The Stanford-Binet
Test




Used in schools and health settings
Has array of intellectual tasks
Age-related changes in learning built in
Devised mental age IQ = MA x 100
CA
 If a 10-year-old child has a mental age of the average 12-year-old, his
IQ is 12/10 * 100 = 120.
If a 10-year-old child has a mental age of the average 8-year-old, his
IQ is 8/10 8 100 = 80.
Stanford-Binet Test: Relationship of g and specific abilities
The Stanford-Binet Test
 Originated in early 1900s by Binet and Simon as a means of
placing children in appropriate tracks in school--basically a
project of finding questions that discriminated among children
and successfully predicted school performance (grades,
teachers' opinions). They didn't have a theory.
 The point was to find items that discriminated among
children as follows:
 The items of the test were retained only if they were useful in
sorting children by age. E.g., an item would be retained if it
was passed by 40% of 5-year olds, 60% of 6-year-olds, and
80% of 7-year-olds.
 Mental age is an index of child's performance level
compared to the average for children of the same age.
The Traditional Approach: Testing
Intelligence
 Other IQ tests:
 The Wechsler Scales

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
Intelligence (WPPSI)

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC)

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Separate verbal and performance scores
The Traditional Approach: The
Wechsler Scales
 The Wechsler Scales: Separate verbal and
performance scores
 Verbal: General information, arithmetic,
similarities between words, digit span
 Performance: Picture completion, Picture
arrangement, Reproducing Block designs,
assemble jigsaw puzzle
The Traditional Approach: The
Wechsler Scales
 Wechsler introduced the deviation IQ. in which IQ is measured in
terms of standard deviations from the mean of children the same
age.
 This results in the familiar Bell Curve. Average IQ is 100.
An IQ of 115 is 1 Standard Deviation above the mean, 130 is 2
standard deviations above the mean.
WISC-IV
Arithmetic
Similarities
Letter-number sequencing
Vocabulary
Picture completion
Information
Comprehension
Cancellation
Word Reasoning
Block Design
Picture concepts
Digit span
Matrix reasoning
The Traditional Approach: Constructing
Measures of Intelligence

Psychometrician: test constructor

Development of norms: Values that describe the
typical test performance of a specific group of people.
Tests are normed for groups having a characteristic
such as age or nationality in common.

Standardization: The process by which test
constructors ensure that testing procedures,
instructions, and scoring are identical, or as nearly
identical as possible, on every testing occasion.
IQ Testing: Constructing Measures of
Intelligence

Validity and Reliability
 Validity: THE ACCURACY WITH WHICH A
MEASURING INSTRUMENT ASSESSES THE
ATTRIBUTE THAT IT IS DESIGNED TO MEASURE
CORRELATED WITH MEASURES OF SCHOOL
PERFORMANCE:
 TEACHERS' EVALUATIONS, GRADES;
 the correlations typically are moderate: 0.5 < r < 0.7;
 GOTTFREDSON ARTICLE: THERE ARE A LOT OF
OTHER REAL-WORLD CORRELATES OF IQ.

Reliability: THE CONSISTENCY OR
REPEATABILITY OF A
MEASURING INSTRUMENT
The Importance of IQ: A Sibling Study

SIBLING STUDIES CONTROL FOR FAMILY INFLUENCES: SES, PARENTING
PRACTICES, NEIGHBORHOOD, ETC.

ONE SIBLING WITH IQ OF 90-110 = NORMAL
OTHER SIBLING WITH IQ > 110 = BRIGHT OR
OTHER SIBLING WITH IQ < 90 = DULL

N = 710; BOTH SEXES; AGED 28-36; PARENTS IN TOP 75% OF INCOME;

DULL
NORMAL
INCOME IN 1993:
$23,600
$33,600
COLLEGE DEGREE:
2%
21%
ILLEGITIMACY RATE
(FIRST CHILD)
45%
21%
NUMBER OF CHILDREN:
1.9
1.4
BRIGHT SIB 6-1/2 TIMES MORE LIKELY TO MAKE OVER $100,000.



BRIGHT
$44,800
56%
10%
1.4
BRIGHT SIBS WITHOUT COLLEGE DEGREE EARNED MORE THAN NORMALS
WITHOUT COLLEGE DEGREE
DULL SIB 5 TIMES MORE LIKELY TO BE BELOW THE POVERTY LINE.
16.3% OF DULL SIBS BELOW POVERTY LINE; MENIAL OCCUPATIONS;
'MARKEDLY HIGHER' DIVORCE RATE THAN NORMAL OR BRIGHT;
DULL WOMEN HAD FIRST CHILD 4 YEARS EARLIER THAN NORMAL OR
BRIGHT.
IQ INTERVENTION STUDIES
 CONSORTIUM FOR LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
RESULTS FOR 11 PRESCHOOL INTERVENTION PROJECTS



1.) POSITIVE EFFECT ON IQ DURING INTERVENTION AND
FOR A YEAR OR TWO THEREAFTER;
2.) EFFECT DIMINISHES OVER TIME AND NO EFFECT AT
LONG TERM FOLLOW-UP
3.) POSITIVE EFFECTS ON NON-IQ MEASURES: STAYING
IN SCHOOL, ACHIEVEMENT TESTS, ACHIEVEMENT
MOTIVATION, MATERNAL ATTITUDES TOWARD SCHOOL,
STAYING OUT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION
 POSITIVE EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH:


(1) "CLOSE AND EXTENDED INTERACTION WITH
SUPPORTIVE ADULT”
(2) INTENSITY OF INTERVENTION: A GENERAL
PRINCIPLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE