Transcript Essentials of Contemporary Management 3e

The Nature of Motivation
• Motivation
The psychological forces acting on an individual
that determine:
• Direction—possible behaviors the individual
could engage in.
• Effort—how hard the individual will work.
• Persistence—whether the individual will keep
trying or give up.
Explains why people behave the way they do in
organizations.
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9–1
Sources of Motivation
Personal
Characteristics
Nature of the
Job
Individual
Motivation
Nature of the
Organization
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9–2
Expectancy Theory
• Motivation will be high when workers believe:
High levels of effort will lead to high performance.
High performance will lead to the attainment of
desired outcomes.
• Major Factors of Motivation
Expectancy—the belief that effort (input) will
result in a certain level of performance.
Instrumentality—the belief that performance
results in the attainment of outcomes.
Valence—how desirable each of the available
outcomes from the job is to a person.
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Expectancy and Motivation
• Motivation is highest when expectancy,
instrumentality, and valence levels are high.
If one of the values is low, motivation will be low:
• Workers do not believe they can perform well.
• Workers do not believe that performance and
rewards are closely linked.
• Workers do not value the rewards offered for
performance.
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9–4
Need Theories
• Need
A requirement for survival and well-being.
• Need Theories
Theories of motivation that focus on what needs
people are trying to satisfy at work and what
outcomes will satisfy those needs.
Basis premise is that people are motivated to obtain
outcomes at work to satisfy their needs.
• Managers must determine what needs a worker
wants satisfied and ensure that a person
receives the outcomes when performing well.
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Needs
Highest-level
needs
Lowest-level
needs
Description
Examples
Selfactualization
Realize one’s
full potential
Use abilities
to the fullest
Esteem
Feel good
about oneself
Promotions
and recognition
Belongingness
Social
interaction, love
Interpersonal
relations, parties
Safety
Security, stability
Job security,
health insurance
Physiological
Food, water,
shelter
Basic pay level
to buy items
Lower-level needs must be satisfied
before higher-level needs are addressed.
Table 9.1
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9–6
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher
motivation and job satisfaction, and those
outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction.
Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work
itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work.
Hygiene needs are related to the physical and
psychological context of the work—comfortable
work environment, pay, job security.
• Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction;
satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to
motivation or job satisfaction.
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9–7
McClelland’s Needs for Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power
• Need for Achievement
A strong need to perform challenging tasks well
and meet personal standards for excellence.
• Need for Affiliation
A concern for good interpersonal relations, being
liked, and getting along.
• Need for Power
A desire to control or influence others.
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9–8
Adam’s Equity Theory
• Focuses on people’s perceptions of the
fairness (or lack of fairness) of their work
outcomes in proportion to their work inputs.
A relative outcome to input ratio comparison to
oneself or to another person (referent) perceived as
similar to oneself.
Equity exists when a person perceives that their
outcome/input ratio to be equal to the referent’s
ratio.
• If the referent receives more outcomes, they
should also give more inputs to achieve equity.
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9–9
Goal Setting Theory
• Focuses on identifying the types of goals that
are effective in producing high levels of
motivation and explaining why goals have
these effects.
• Considers how managers can ensure that
workers focus their inputs (efforts) in the
direction of high performance and the
achievement of organizational goals.
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9–10
Operant Conditioning Theory
• Operant Conditioning
People learn to perform behaviors that lead to
desired consequences and learn not to perform
behaviors that lead to undesired consequences.
Linking specific behaviors to the attainment of
specific outcomes can motivate high performance
and prevent behaviors that detract from
organizational effectiveness.
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9–11
Operant Conditioning Tools
• Positive Reinforcement
Getting desired outcomes for performing needed
work behaviors.
• Positive reinforcers: pay, praises, or promotions.
• Negative Reinforcement
Eliminating undesired outcomes once the desired
behavior occurs.
• Negative reinforcers: criticisms, pay cuts,
suspension.
• Is not the same as punishment.
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9–12
Operant Conditioning Tools (cont’d)
• Extinction
Curtailing the performance of a dysfunctional
behavior by eliminating whatever is reinforcing it.
• Behavior is not rewarded and over time, the
worker stops performing it.
• Punishment
Administering an undesired/negative consequence
to immediately stop a dysfunctional behavior.
• Manager administers an undesired consequence
to worker (verbal reprimand, demotion, pay cut).
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9–13
Social Learning Theory
• A theory that takes into account how learning
and motivation are influenced by people’s
thoughts and beliefs and their observations of
other people’s behavior.
• Vicarious Learning (Observational Learning)
When a learner is motivated to perform a behavior
by watching another person perform and be
rewarded.
• People are motivated to imitate models who are
highly competent, expert, receive attractive
reinforcers, and are friendly or approachable.
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9–14
Pay and Motivation
• Pay as a Motivator
Expectancy
• Pay is an instrumentality (and outcome)
• Expectancy must be high for motivation to be
high.
Need Theory
• Pay is used to satisfy many needs.
Equity Theory
• Pay is given in proportion to inputs.
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