Transcript Chapter 4
Chapter 9 Psychological Development Developmental Psychology • Developmental psychology: The study of how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences How Do Psychologists Explain Development? Development is a process of growth and change brought about by an interaction of heredity and the environment The Nature-Nurture Interaction • Nature-nurture issue: Long-standing discussion over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes The Nature-Nurture Interaction • Identical twins: pair from a single fertilized egg which later split into two distinct individuals • Fraternal twins: pair from two separate fertilized eggs that shared the same womb Performance Gradual versus Abrupt Change Continuity view Discontinuity view Age • Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view Gradual versus Abrupt Change • Developmental stages: Periods of life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning Cooperative Learning Activity • Goal: – Understand that development is a lifelong process. • Directions: – Think about and discuss your given scenario. – Write a list of relevant questions about it that might help you better understand the scenario. – Think about it – What information would you want about contributing factors across the lifespan to help you better understand/deal with the situation? • What biological, social, cognitive factors are at work here? – Discuss how you might handle the situation. Chapter 9: Development What Capabilities Does the Child Possess? Newborns have innate abilities for finding nourishment, interacting with others, and avoiding harmful situations; the developing abilities of infants and children rely on learning. Prenatal Development • Prenatal period : The developmental period before birth – Zygote: up to 14 days – Embryo: 14 days to end of 2nd month – Fetus: 3 months to birth • Placenta: An organ that develops between the embryo/fetus and the mother • Teratogens: Toxic substances that can damage the developing organism Neonatal Period (from birth to one month) • Sensory abilities • Motor abilities – – – – Grasping reflex Rooting reflex Sucking reflex Stepping reflex Infancy (one month to about 18 months) • Maturation: The unfolding of genetically programmed processes of growth and development over time Maturation Timetable • 1 month: responds to sound, vocalizes occasionally • 2 months: smiles socially, recognizes caregiver, rolls from side to back, holds head up • 3 months: vocalizes to sounds/smiles, searches for sound source, sits with support • 4 months: gaze follows interesting objects, sits with less support Maturation Timetable • 5 months: discriminates b/w strangers & familiar persons, distinctive vocalizations • 6 months: lifts objects, smiles at own image, reaches for objects • 7 months: sits on own, crawls • 8-9 months: verbalizes around 4 syllables, pulls to standing position • 10-11 months: plays hand games, stands alone • 1 year: walks alone Learning in Infancy • Conditioning – classical and operant • Imprinting – in animals, not children Social and Emotional Development • Theory of Mind: An awareness that other people’s behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one’s own • Temperament: An individual’s characteristic manner of behavior or reaction (strong biological origin) Attachment Styles • Humans apparently have an inborn need for attachment – deep, enduring socio-emotional relationship with another • Strange Situation (Ainsworth, 1978) – Secure attachment – Insecure attachment • Anxious-ambivalent attachment • Avoidant attachment Social and Emotional Development • Most approaches to child rearing fall into one of the following styles (Baumrind): 1. 2. 3. 4. Authoritarian parents Permissive parents (permissive-indulgent) Uninvolved parents (permissive indifferent) Authoritative parents Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Age/Period Principal Challenge 0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust 1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt 3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt 6 years to puberty Confidence (Industry) vs. inferiority Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation Late adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair What Are the Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Childhood? Infants and children face especially important developmental tasks in the areas of cognition and social relationships – tasks that lay a foundation for further growth in adolescence and adulthood Cognitive Development • Jean Piaget • Cognitive development: The process by which thinking changes over time • Schemas: Mental structures or programs that guide a developing child’s thoughts Cognitive Development • Assimilation: Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existing schemas • Accommodation: Mental process that restructures existing schemas so that new information is better understood Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational • Birth to about age 2 • Relies on innate motor responses to stimuli • Schemas – see & touch • Sensorimotor intelligence • Mastery of these marks end of stage: • Mental representations • Object permanence Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational • About age 2 to age 6/7 • Marked by welldeveloped mental representation and the use of language • Seen in this stage: • Egocentrism • Animistic thinking • Centration Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Concrete Operational • About age 7 - 11 • Child understands conservation but is incapable of abstract thought • Simple logic only Formal Operational • Conservation • Mental operations Preoperational Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational • From about age 12 on • Abstract thought appears What Changes Mark the Transition of Adolescence? Adolescence offers new developmental challenges growing out of physical changes, cognitive changes, and socio-emotional changes The Transitions of Adolescence • Adolescence: Developmental period beginning at puberty and ending at adulthood • Rites of passage: Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood Physical Maturation & Cognition Changes in Adolescence • Puberty: Onset of sexual maturity • Problems with self-image, self-esteem – more aware of physical attractiveness • Formal operational stage: abstract and complex thought • Hormones rise to high levels • The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel” – This leads to sensation seeking and risk taking, and preoccupation with body image and sex Social Identity in Adolescence • Identity crisis • The increasing influence of peers • Common social problems in adolescence • Delinquency Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning • I. Preconventional morality – Stage 1: Pleasure/pain orientation – Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation; reciprocity • II. Conventional morality – Stage 3: “Good child” orientation – Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation • III. Postconventional (principled) morality – Stage 5: Social contract orientation – Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning • Not tightly linked to one’s age • Moves from morality based on reward/ punishment to one based on abstract ethical principles. • Gender and morality – Carol Gilligan: Kohlberg’s stages are biased; based on males; female morality embedded in social relationships What Developmental Challenges Do Adults Face? Nature and nurture continue to produce changes throughout life, but in adulthood these changes include both growth and decline The Developmental Challenges of Adulthood • Early Adulthood (Erikson) – Intimacy versus isolation • Middle Adulthood (Erikson) – Generativity versus stagnation – Generativity: making a commitment beyond oneself to family, work, society, or future generations The Last Developmental Issues You Will Face • Late Adulthood (Erikson) – Ego-integrity vs. Despair – Ego-integrity: ability to look back on life without regrets and to enjoy a sense of wholeness • Impact on physical, cognitive, social and emotional abilities: – Vision, hearing, thinking/learning/problem solving, memory, sexual functioning, selective social interaction, emotions • 5 Stages of Death/Dying/Grieving (Kubler-Ross): Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance