Transcript Slide 1
By Ryan Diaz + David Valancy - A neuron is a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. -Sends neural impulses, electrical messages around the body. - The dendrites are the brushy branching extension that extend from the cell body to receive messages. -The axon is the extension of the neuron from cell body to terminal buttons. It conducts the action potential to the other end of the neuron. -The myelin sheath is a layer of fatty tissue segmentally surrounding the axon. It increases the speed of the neural message. - Terminal buttons are the end areas of the axon. They release neuron transmitters into the synapse. -Action potential is a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon. Generated by the movement of positively charge particle in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane. -Resting potential is when the axon has the same amount of positive particles on the outside of the axon as on the inside. -When enough excitatory rather than inhibitory messages are receive the threshold is met triggering action potential -The axon is selectively permeable and only allows the positively charged sodium ions in and negative potassium ions out when threshold is met. -Depolarization is the stage where negative ions are pumped outside and positives are pumped in. This starts a chain reaction that spreads down the axon. -The refractory period is when the pumps pump the ions back to original positions to fire again. - Classical conditioning is a type of learning where an organism comes to associate stimuli. -An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that naturally triggers a unconditioned, or unlearned response (UCR). -A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that is learned to be associated with the UCS produce a conditioned response (CR) which is the same as the UCR. - Extinction is the diminishing of the conditioned response. Occurs when the UCS no longer follows the CS. - Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance after a rest period of an extinguished conditioned response - Pioneered by Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning in advertising Pavlov’s experiment that discovers classical conditioning -Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by punisher. -Operant conditioning alters operant behaviors, behaviors that operate on the environment and produce consequences. The organism can consciously control these actions. -Edward Thorndike stated the Law of Effect. It says the behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely , and that behavior followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely - B. F. Skinner pioneered operant conditioning - Shaping is the operant procedure where reinforcers lead behavior toward closer and closer approximation of a desired goal. Food is a Primary reinforcer -Skinner boxes (as shown on the left) were used to measure operant learning in animals by how many times and how fast they got food for doing a specific behavior -Primary reinforcers are innately reinforcing stimuli. They are biologically predisposed to be desirable. -Conditioned reinforcers are stimuli that gain reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers. -Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus. Negative reinforcement takes away an undesirable stimulus. -Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus. Negative punishment withdraws a desirable stimulus Positive reinforcers: food, money, love, etc Negative reinforcers: child stopping screaming Positive punishment: hit, yelling, ticket, etc. Negative punishment: Time-out, stealing possessions, etc. Cool People Like Racing -Light enters the eye through the cornea which protects the eye and bends the light to provide focus -It then goes through the pupil, a opening adjusted by the iris through which light enters the eye. -The lens which is behind the pupil changes shape through accommodation order to focus the image on the retina - The retina is the inner surface at the back of the eye containing the receptor cells, rods and cones. -Rods detect only black, white, and gray. They are used in peripheral and twilight vision. Outnumber cones. -Cones are concentrated in the middle of the retina (fovea) and function in good lighting. They detect fine detail and color - Rods and cones send neural images to the neighboring bipolar cells. Which then send messages to the ganglion cells. -The ganglion cells come together to form the optic nerve which carries the neural impulses to the brain, specifically the occipital lobe via the thalamus. -Where the optic nerve leaves the retina there is a blind spot where no receptor cells are located. -Feature detectors in the brain are nerve cells that Rods and cones respond to specific features of the stimulus, like shape, angle, or movement. -The brain uses a process called parallel processing to process several aspects of a problem simultaneously It can process things like depth, form, motion, and color all at the same time. -Color constancy is the perceiving of familiar objects as having consistent color even as illumination changes. Optic nerve > -The outer ear funnels sound waves down the auditory canal to the eardrum -The eardrum vibrates the hammer, which triggers the anvil, then the stirrup. All of these are small bones located in the middle ear. They concentrate the vibrations from the eardrum on the oval window. -The inner ear contains the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibule sacs. -The cochlea is a coiled bony, fluid-filled tube through which sound waves trigger neural impulses. The sound waves are gathered from the vibration of the oval window via the middle ear. -The fluid in the cochlea ripples vibrating the basilar membrane which is lined with hair cells. The movement f theses hairs trigger the neural messages to the auditory nerve. -Place theory says that we hear pitch according to the place on the cochlea’s membrane that is stimulated. Best explains how we sense high pitches -Frequency theory states that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of the tone. Best explains how we sense low pitches -We have stereo phonic hearing allowing us to locate sounds in 3 dimensions. The difference in time and intensity of a sound in each of your 2 ears enables location of the sound. -Conduction hearing loss occurs when we damage parts of the outer and middle ear that conduct sound to the cochlea. -Sensorineural hearing loss is hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or auditory nerves. - Creativity is the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. Coming up with and innovative and helpful idea or concept. - Generally if you score high on an intelligence test you will also score high on a creativity test. There are 5 main components to creativity. 1. Expertise is a well-developed base of knowledge. The more we know the more likely we’ll combine information in a novel way. 2. Imaginative thinking skills provide the ability to see things in new ways, to recognize patterns, to make connections. Being able to change perspective fosters creativity. 3. A venturesome personality will be able to over some obstacles more easily. People like this don’t mind uncertainty or risk and are yearning for new and unique experiences. 4. Intrinsic Motivation is important because people are most creative when they are motivated by interest and pleasure, not outside external rewards. 5. A creative environment cultivates and protects creative ideas. Supportive people and mentor are included. -Creative environments free people from concern with social approval. Other people don’t matter when someone is enthralled in their work. -- Lateral thinking is thinking about a problem in a different way hoping to foster a creative answer, opposed to step-by-step logic. -Hunger is a basic drive to satisfy a physiological need for nourishment. It is placed on the lowest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, meaning that to satisfy any other need you must satisfy your need for food first (according to Maslow). -People and other animals automatically monitor their calorie intake, preventing energy deficits and maintaining a stable weight. -Glucose is a form of sugar in the blood. It provides much of our body tissue with energy. When the level is low we feel hungry. -The lateral (sides of the) hypothalamus makes us hungry. Ventromedial (lower middle) hypothalamus depresses hunger. -Our set point is the point at which our natural weight is supposed to be. When we fall below that weight hunger goes up and metabolic rate is lowered. (older hunger theory) -The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure is the basal metabolic rate. Changes if we fluctuate from set point. - Our preference for sweet and salty foods is genetic but people generally dislike new unusual foods. -Leptin is a protein secreted by fat cells. Too much Leptin means too much fat, thus lowered hunger -Orexin is the hunger causing hormone secreted by the hypothalamus. -Ghrelin is secreted by an empty stomach triggering hunger -PYY is secreted from the digestive track and depresses hunger. -The James-Lange theory of emotion states that we experience our emotions by becoming aware of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. Physical changes cause mental stresses. -Cannon- Bard theory of emotion says that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion. There is no cause and affect relationship between the physical and mental effects of emotion. -The Two-factor theory is Schachter’s theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal. The arousal affects you, but it depends on the context. -Some neural pathways involving emotion bypass the cortical areas involved in thinking. The eyes can shortcut via the thalamus straight to the amygdala ( fear and anger center) Stanley Schachter -The two dimensions of emotion include pleasant vs. unpleasant (valence and low vs. high arousal. Theoretically all emotions will be some combination of the two dimensions. -Zajonc and LeDoux emphasize that some emotional responses are immediate, before any conscious appraisal. That’s opposed to Lazarus and Schachter that say that even instantly felt emotions require a cognitive label of the situation. -Arousal fuels and emphasizes any emotion, cognition channels it.