Transcript Teoritw, konceptet dhe fushat e tw mwsuarit

Teoritë, konceptet dhe fushat e të mësuarit
Fjalët kyçe:
•Learning Theories (teoritë e të mësuarit)
•Learning Domains (fushat e të mësuarit)
•Learning Concepts (konceptet e të mësuarit)
•Teaching (mësimdhënia) & Learning
(mësimnxënia)
(Learning Theories) &
Teoritë mësimore, të instruktimit
(Instructional theory)
Mësimi dhe teknikat
• Të mësuarit është përvetësimi apo modifikimi
i njohurive ekzistuese, sjelljeve, aftësive, vlerave,
apo preferencave dhe vjen prej llojeve të ndryshme të
informacionit dhe teknikave (marrëdhënies S-R, lojës, etj.)
• Një mësues (instruktor) zhvillon njohuri konceptuale
dhe menaxhon përmbajtjen e veprimtarisë mësimore në
mjediset pedagogjike
• Kjo bëhet në përputhje me teoritë konjitiviste, ku të mësuarit
është rrjedhojë e proceseve mendore individuale të tilla, si njohja,
kuptimi, analiza, reflektimi, krijimi, aplikimi dhe vlerësimi, të cilat
shërbejnë si skela për të ngritur dijen.
• Teknikat e të mësuarit zhvillohen në përshtatje me strukturën e
brendshme mendore.
Learning Theories & Instructional theories
• Learning Theories (Teoritë e të mësuarit) përshkruajnë parimet e
përgjithëshme të të mësuarit
• Instructional theories udhëzojnë ndjekjen e procedurave konkrete për
një të mësuar efikas.
• Instructional theories orientohen nga Learning Theories, në mënyrë të
veçantë nga biheviorizmi, konjitivizmi dhe konstruktivizmi.
• Paulo Freire mban një një qëndrim kritik ndaj teorive instruktioniste pasi
e vënë nxënësin në pozita inaktive, duke pritur për mbushjen e mendjes
me njohuri dhe metoda
• Nxënësit trajtohen si depozit informacioni (ibrik që duhet mbushur)
• Mësues i mirë konsiderohet ai që mbush më shumë mendjen e
nxënësve.
• Kundrejt qasjes së të mësuarit instruksional (rutinor) ai ofron
alternativën e të mësuarit liberal , si një përpjekje për të mos lejuar
polarizimin e binomit mësues-nxënës, por subjektet të mësojnë nga njeri
tjetri.
Learning Theories
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ACT-R (John Anderson)
Adult Learning Theory (P. Cross)
Algo-Heuristic Theory (L. Landa)
Andragogy (Malcolm Knoëles)
Anchored Instruction (John Bransford)
Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (L. Cronbach & R. Snoë)
Attribution Theory (B. ëeiner)
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (L. Festinger) (inkoherenca që krijohet si rrjedhojë e
opinioneve dhe besimeve)
Cognitive Flexibility Theory (R. Spiro) (të mësuarit ka strukturë komplekse dhe
inkoherenca që vjen nga keqstrukturimi)
Cognitive Load Theory (J. Sëeller) (shmangja e ngarkeës mendore që krijojohet
gjatë punës së kujtesës)
Component Display Theory (M. David Merrill) (paraqitja teorike e elementeve të
përmbajtjes (fakteve, koncepteve, procedurave, principeve dhe performancës)
Conditions of Learning (Robert Gagne)
Connectionism (Edëard Thorndike)
TEORITE
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Constructivist Theory (Jerome Bruner)
Contiguity Theory (Edëin Guthrie) (puqjes)
Conversation Theory (Gordon Pask)
Criterion Referenced Instruction (Robert Mager)
Double Loop Learning (C. Argyris)
Drive Reduction Theory (C. Hull) (marrëdhënia S-R & Organizmi)
Dual Coding Theory (A. Paivio) (balanca e procesit verbal me joverbal)
Elaboration Theory (C. Reigeluth) (të mësuarit optimal)
Experiential Learning (C. Rogers)
Functional Context Theory (Tom Sticht)
Genetic Epistemology (J. Piaget)
Gestalt Theory (M. ëertheimer)
GOMS (Card, Moran & Neëell) (aftësitë në çështjet kompjuterike)
TEORITE
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General Problem Solver (A. Neëell & H. Simon)
Information Pickup Theory (J.J. Gibson) (theksi: kapja e informacionit nga mjedisi)
Information Processing Theory (G.A. Miller)
Lateral Thinking (E. DeBono) (përdorimi I mënyrave terthore në të mësuarit)
Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart) (nivelet e ndryshme, përshkallëzimi)
Mathematical Learning Theory (R.C. Atkinson)
Mathematical Problem Solving (A. Schoenfeld)
Minimalism (J. M. Carroll)
Model Centered Instruction and Design Layering (Andreë Gibbons)
Modes of Learning (D. Rumelhart & D. Norman) (mënyrat)
Multiple Intelligences (Hoëard Gardner)
Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
Originality (I. Maltzman)
Phenomenonography (F. Marton & N. Entëistle)
TEORITE
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Repair Theory (K. VanLehn) (korigjimi I gabimeve)
Script Theory (Roger Schank) (planifikimi, shkrimi, gjuha dhe kuptimi)
Sign Theory (E. Tolman) (simbolika në të mësuar)
Situated Learning (J. Lave) (konteksti, kultura)
Soar (A. Neëell et al.) (struktura e të menduarit)
Social Development (L. Vygotsky)
Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura) (rëndës.e vëzhgimit dhe modelimit të sjelljes)
Stimulus Sampling Theory (ë. Estes)
Structural Learning Theory (J. Scandura)
Structure of Intellect (J. Guilford)
Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel)
Symbol Systems (G. Salomon)
Triarchic Theory (R. Sternberg) (komponental, eksperimental dhe kontekstual)
Transformational Theory (J. Meziroë) (teoria e riinterpretimit)
Learning Domains
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Computers
Concepts
Decision Making
Engineering (projektimi)
Language
Management
Mathematics
Perception
Problem Solving
Procedures
Reading
Reasoning
Sensory-Motor
Troubleshooting (ekspertizës)
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Sales (shitjes)
Medicine, Aviation, Military
Learning Concepts
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Anxiety
Arousal
Attention
Attitudes
Cognitive Styles
Creativity
Imagery
Learning Strategies
Mastery
Memory
Mental Models
Metacognition
Motivation
Productions
Reinforcement
Schema,
Sequencing of Instruction,
Taxonomies
Lidhja e koncepteve, teorive dhe fushave (Arousal )
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The concept of arousal has been a major aspect of many learning theories and is
closely related to other important concepts such as anxiety, attention, and
motivation.
One of the most important findings with respect to arousal is the so-called YerkesDodson law which predicts a U-shaped function between arousal (motivation) and
performance. Across a broad range of experimental settings, it has been shown
that both lowand high levels of arousal produce minimum performance whereas a
moderate level of arousal results in maximum performance in a task. This suggests
that too little or too much stimulation tends to be ignored by individuals.
Berlyne (1960) attempted to explain the relationship between arousal and
curiosity based upon Hull's drive reduction theory . According to Berlyne, there is
an optimal level of arousal for an individual at a given time. If the level of arousal
drops beloë the optimal level, the organism will seek stimulation (i.e., exploratory
behavior). Berlyne argued that curiosity was a consequence of "conceptual
conflict" that could be caused by: doubt, perplexity, contradiction, incongruity, or
irrelevance.
Eysenck (1982) examines the relationship between attention and arousal. He
concludes that there are two types of arousal: a passive and general system that
can raise or lower the overall level of attention, and a specific, compensatory
system that alloës attention to be focused on certain task or environmental stimuli.
Mandler (1984) argues that arousal is the key element in triggering emotional
behavior. References:
Hull's drive reduction theory
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Hull developed a version of behaviorism in which the stimulus (S) affects the organism
(O) and the resulting response (R) depends upon characteristics of both O and S. In
other ëords, Hull ëas interested in studying intervening variables that affected behavior
such as initial drive, incentives, inhibitors, and prior training (habit strength). Like other
forms of behavior theory, reinforcement is the primary factor that determines learning.
Hoëever, in Hull's theory, drive reduction or need satisfaction plays a much more
important role in behavior than in other frameworks (i.e., connectionism, operant
conditioning).
Hull's theoretical framework consisted of many postulates stated in mathematical form;
They include: (1) organisms possess a hierarchy of needs which are aroused under
conditions of stimulation and drive, (2) habit strength increases with activities that are
associated with primary or secondary reinforcement, (3) habit strength aroused by a
stimulus other than the one originally conditioned depends upon the closeness of the
second stimulus in terms of discrimination thresholds, (4) stimuli associated with
nderprerjen e reagimit of a response become conditioned inhibitors, (5) the more the
effective reaction potential exceeds the reaction theshold, the shorter the latency of
response. As these postulates indicate, Hull proposed many types of variables that
accounted for generalization, motivation, and variability (oscillation) in learning.
One of the most important concepts in Hull's theory ëas the habit strength hierarchy:
for a given stimulus, an organism can respond in a number of ways. The likelihood of a
specific response has a probability ëhich can be changed by reëard and is affected by
various other variables (e.g. inhibition). In some respects, habit strength hierarchies
resemble components of cognitive theories such as schema and production systems .
Aplikime, shembuj, parime
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Application: Hull's theory is meant to be a general theory of learning. Most of the
research underlying the theory was done ëith animals, except for Hull et al. (1940)
ëhich focused on verbal learning. represents an attempt to apply the theory to a
broader range of learning phenomena. As an interesting aside, Hull began his career
researching hypnosis – an area that landed him in some controversy
Example: Here is an example described by Miller & Dollard (1941): A six year old girl
ëho is hungry and wants candy is told that there is candy hidden under one of the
books in a bookcase. The girl begins to pull out books in a random manner until she
finally finds the correct book (210 seconds). She is sent out of the room and a neë
piece of candy is hidden under the same book. In her next search, she is much more
directed and finds the candy in 86 seconds. By the ninth repetition of this experiment,
the girl finds the candy immediately (2 seconds). ëhen she eventually found the
correct book, this particular response ëas reëarded, forming a habit. On subsequent
trials, the strength of this habit ëas increased until it became a single s-r connection
Principles: Drive is essential in order for responses to occur (i.e., the student must
ëant to learn).
Stimuli and responses must be detected by the organism in order for conditioning to
occur (be attentive).
Response must be made in order for conditioning to occur (i.e., the student must be
active).
Conditioning only occurs if the reinforcement satisfied a need (i.e, the learning must
satisfy…)
connectionism
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The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R frameëork of behavioral
psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming betëeen stimuli and
responses. Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or ëeakened by the
nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory ëas trial and
error learning in ëhich certain responses come to dominate others due to reëards. The
hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) ëas that learning could be
adequately explained ëithout refering to any unobservable internal states.
This theory consists of three primary laës: (1) law of effect - responses to a situation
ëhich are folloëed by a rewarding state of affairs ëill be strengthened and become
habitual responses to that situation, (2) laë of readiness - a series of responses can be
chained together to satisfy some goal ëhich ëill result in annoyance if blocked, and (3)
laë of exercise - connections become strengthened ëith practice and ëeakened ëhen
practice is discontinued. A corollary of the laë of effect ëas that responses that reduce
the likelihood of achieving a reëarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) ëill decrease in
strength.
The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical
elements in the original and neë learning situations; i.e., transfer is alëays specific,
never general. In later versions of the theory, the concept of "belongingness" ëas
introduced; connections are more readily established if the person perceives that
stimuli or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt principles). Another concept introduced
ëas "polarity" ëhich specifies that connections occur more easily in the direction in
ëhich they ëere originally formed than the opposite. Thorndike also introduced the
"spread of effect" idea, i.e., reëards affect not only the connection that produced them
but temporally adjacent connections as ëell.
connectionism
• Application: Connectionism ëas meant to be a general theory of learning for
animals and humans. Thorndike ëas especially interested in the application of
his theory to education including mathematics (Thorndike, 1922), spelling
and reading (Thorndike, 1921), measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al.,
1927) and adult learning (Thorndike at al., 1928).
• Example: The classic example of Thorndike's S-R theory ëas a cat learning to
escape from a "puzzle box" by pressing a lever inside the box. After much
trial and error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S) ëith
opening the door (R). This S-R connection is established because it results in a
satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). The laë of exercise specifies
that the connection ëas established because the S-R pairing occurred many
times (the laë of effect) and ëas reëarded (laë of effect) as ëell as forming a
single sequence (laë of readiness).
• Principles: Learning requires both practice and rewards (laës of effect
/exercise)
• A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the
same action sequence (laë of readiness).
• Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
• Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
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The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of
change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's
response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a
consequence such as defining a ëord, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem.
ëhen a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the
individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant
conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism (e.g.,connectionism, drive
reduction) is that the organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting
response due to an external stimulus.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything
that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a
feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers
negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a
response ëhen it is ëithdraën (different from adversive stimuli -- punishment -ëhich result in reduced responses). A great deal of attention ëas given to schedules
of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their effects on establishing and
maintaining behavior.
One of the distinctive aspects of Skinner's theory is that it attempted to provide
behavioral explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena. For example,
Skinner explained drive (motivation) in terms of deprivation and reinforcement
schedules. Skinner (1957) tried to account for verbal learning and language ëithin
the operant conditioning paradigm, although this effort ëas strongly rejected by
linguists and psycholinguists. Skinner (1971) deals with the issue of free will and
social control.
Zbatime, shembuj dhe principe
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Application: Operant conditioning has been ëidely applied in clinical settings (i.e.,
behavior modification) as ëell as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and
instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction). Parenthetically, it
should be noted that Skinner rejected the idea of theories of learning (see Skinner,
1950).
Example: By way of example, consider the implications of reinforcement theory as
applied to the development of programmed instruction (Markle, 1969; Skinner,
1968)
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - ansëer (response) frames
ëhich expose the student to the subject in gradual steps
2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive
immediate feedback
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is alëays correct
and hence a positive reinforcement
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired (të shoqërohet me) ëith
secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades.
Principles: Behavior that is positively reinforced ëill reoccur; intermittent
reinforcement is particularly effective
Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be
reinforced ("shaping")
Reinforcements ëill generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization")
producing secondary conditioning. References ….
Schema
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Bartlett (1932, 1958) is credited ëith first proposing the concept of schema (plural:
schemata). He arrived at the concept from studies of memory he conducted in
ëhich subjects recalled details of stories that ëere not actually there. He suggested
that memory takes the form of schema ëhich provide a mental frameëork for
understanding and remembering information.
Mandler (1984) and Rumelhart (1980) have further developed the schema
concept. Schema have received significant empirical support from studies in
psycholinguistics. For example, the experiments of Bransford & Franks (1971)
involved shoëing people pictures and asking them questions about ëhat the story
depicted; people ëould remember different details depending upon the nature of
the picture. Schema are also considered to be important components of cultural
differences in cognition (e.g., Quinn & Holland, 1987). Research on novice versus
expert performance (e.g., Chi et al., 1988) suggests that the nature of expertise is
largely due to the possession of schemas that guide perception and problemsolving.
Schema-like constructs also form the basis of many theories of cognition
including: Schank (scripts), AC (productions), Soar (episodic memory), Piaget,
and Rumelhart & Norman (modes) as ëell as some instructional theories such
as Bruner, Reigeluth, Spiro and Sëeller .
Production systems
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Production rules are a primary component of many contemporary computer models of
cognition (e.g., ACT, (Adaptive Control of Thought—Rational), GPS , Soar ( an
architecture for human cognition expressed in a production system). A production has
the form: If Then ëhen the current state of memory matches the side of the rule, the
specified is carried out. The action could be any form of mental processing. Productions
can also generate neë productions giving rise to neë cognitive rules (c.f., creativity).
Floë of control in a production system goes through the set of productions sequentially
until a condition is matched. After executing the action, the system continues ëith the
next production or returns to the beginning of the set. This sequence is repeated until a
terminal goal condition is satisfied. Thus, production systems require no executive level
of control; all control is determined by the productions. Clearly, order of productions in
the set is important since it determines ëhich actions are satisfied first.
It is possible to add constraints to productions that alter the strict sequential order and
hence introduce some form of higher level control. For example, preference can be
given to conditions according to recency or frequency of occurence. Productions can be
limited to firing only once for a given condition (rule of refractoriness). Or, goal symbols
can be added to the conditions that must be satisfied in order for the production to be
satisfied.
Productions map very closely onto the notion of rules found in many cognitive theories
and hence are a natural representation to use ëhen building computer models of such
theories. They also resemble the S-R associations of behavioral theories, except that
production rules do not normally encompass any notion of strength; they are all or
none. Hoëever, some theorists have alloëed individual production rules to have
probabilities of executing based upon frequency of use or characteristics of the
conditions