Transcript OB_Perceptions.19134329

PERCEPTIONS
“You become what you thinketh”
“If everyone perceived everything the
same way, things would be a lot
simpler”
-Moorhead & Griffin
DEFINITIONS
• STEPHEN ROBBINS
• “ Perception is a process by which
individual’s organise and interpret the
sensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment.”
• FRED LUTHANS
• “Perception is an important mediating
cognitive process through which persons
make interpretations of the stimulus or
situation they are forced with.”
DEFINITIONS…
• UDAI PAREEK & OTHERS
• “Perception can be defined as the process
of receiving, selecting, organising,
checking and reacting to sensory stimuli or
data”.
• In general, it can be defined as “ a process
that involves seeing, receiving, selecting,
organising, interpreting and giving
meaning to the environment”.
MEANING
• Perceptions differ from person to person.
• Each individual perceives the same
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situation differently.
Group perceptions can influence one’s
perception.
Individuals organise and interpret things
based on their past experiences and the
important values they consider important.
Employees tend to behave and act on
certain things on the basis of their
perception.
NATURE OF PERCEPTION
• 1) Perception is the process by which an
individual gives meaning to the
environment.
• 2) It is a cognitive and psychological
process. The manner in which a person
perceives the environment affects his
behaviour. There can be no behaviour
without perception and perception lies at the
base of every human action.
• 3) People’s action, emotions, thoughts and
feelings are triggered by their perceptions of
their surroundings.
• 4) Since perception refers to the acquisition
of specific knowledge about objects or
events at any particular moment, it occurs
whenever stimuli activate the sense organs.
• 5) Though perception has been defined in a
variety of ways, it basically refers to the
manner in which a person experiences the
world.
• 6) Perception is an almost automatic
process and works in much the same way
within each individual, yet typically yields
different perceptions.
• 7) A stimulus that is not perceived has no
effect on behaviour.
• 8) Perception is a process that operates
constantly between us and reality.
• 9) Since perception is subjective process,
different people may perceive the same
environment differently. So perception is
like beauty, that lies in the eyes of the
beholder.
• 10)Perception involves the creation of
gestalts.
• 11)Perception is a unique interpretation of
the situation, not an exact recording of the
situation.
• 12)Perception is more complex and much
broader than sensation.
IMPORTANCE OF PERCEPTION
• Perception plays a very important role in
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shaping the personality of an individual.
Perception is central in interpreting the
world around us.
Perception affects the outcome of our
behaviour because we act on the basis of
what we see.
Managers should be able to distinguish
between a perceived world and the reality.
An understanding of perception is important
to understand and control the human
behaviour .
• The importance of perception in managerial
behaviour are :
• i) Attitude formation: Perceiving events
and people is critical in attitude formation.
Perception creates a basis for our attitudes,
opinions, feelings, beliefs and values.
• ii) Relationship base : the manager’s
relationship with others are based on
perceptions of their basic natures and
motivations. Managers identify the
perceptual structures and implicit
personality of employees before making
work relations.
• iii) Effective communication :Any message
must be received and interpreted before
the communication attempt is complete.
Communication remains ineffective if it
does not accomplish what the source
intends.
• iv) Employment interview :Interviewers
make perceptual judgments, draw
impressions and arrive at conclusions
about the applicants. Thus perception is a
major input in their decision.
• v) Performance evaluation :An employee’s
performance appraisal is very much
dependent on the perceptual outlook. The
evaluator forms a general impression of an
employee’s work. Thus, the perception
process significantly influences the
appraisal outcome.
• vi) Employee effort : In many
organisations, assessment of an employee’s
effort is a subjective judgment which is
susceptible to perceptual distortions and
bias.
• vii)Employees loyalty :When evaluating an
employee’s loyalty, a manager is involved
with person’s perception. This is an
important judgement that managers make
about employees.
• viii)Organisational goals :The
interpretation and accomplishment of
organisational goals again depend on the
philosophies and ideologies of those who
are expected to pursue them.
• ix) Workers’ rights : The interpretation of
workers’ rights and responsibilities is also
dependent on the ideological motives and
beliefs of managers.
• x) Employees unions :Perception plays a
vital role in creating a better
understanding of unions by management
and vice-versa.
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
• Perception is an intellectual process.
• Perception is the basic cognitive or
psychological process.
• Perception is subjective process.
• Perception consists of several sub-processes.
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS…
Perceptual
inputs
Stimuli
Perceptual throughputs
Receiving->Selecting->Organising->Interpreting
Simplified process of perception
Perceptual
Outputs
Actions
• Perceptual inputs – Objects, Events and
people.
All those things in the setting where events
occur or contribute to the occurrence of
events can be termed as Perceptual inputs.
• Perceptual Mechanism -involves three
elements viz. selection of stimuli,
organisation of stimuli and interpretation of
stimuli.
• Perceptual outputs –Attitudes, Opinions,
Feelings & Values.
• The result is the “ BEHAVIOUR”
BASIC ELEMENTS IN THE
PERCEPTUAL STIMULI
ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULI
Objects, events or people
PERCEPTUAL SELECTION
External Factors Internal Factors
Size, intensity,
Personality
Contrast, Motion,
Learning
Repetition, Novelty Motivation
Familiarity
Self concept,
beliefs etc
INTERPRETATION
Perceptual defense, Stereotyping,
Halo effect, Projection, Expectancy
Effects, Internal versus External
Causes, Caused for success and
failures
OBSERVATION (SENSES)
Taste, Hearing, Touch,
Smell, Sight
PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION
Perceptual Grouping, Continuity
Proximity, Closure, Similarity
RESPONSE
Convert, Attitudes, Overt,
Motivations, Feelings etc.
FACTORS INFLUENCING
PERCEPTION
• Perception is influenced by a variety of
individuals and situational factors. Any
perceptual event has three components viz.
– a perceiver, the person perceived and the
situational context in which the perception
is occurring. Let’s explore each of these
under following headings :
• 1. Attributes of the person perceived
• 2. Attributes of the perceiver and
• 3. Attributes of the situation.
ATTRIBUTES OF THE PERSON PERCEIVED
• The first major influence on perception is
of the target, that is the person perceived.
In particular, the following attributes of
target can be identified:
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i) Physical appearance
ii) Verbal and non verbal communication
iii) Status
iv) Occupation
v) Personal characteristics
ATTRIBUTES OF THE PERCEIVER
• Several attributes unique to our
personalities can affect how we see
others. These include the following :
• i) Self concept
• ii) Cognitive structure
• iii)Response salience
• iv)Previous experiences
ATTRIBUTES OF THE SITUATION
• Elements in the surrounding
environment also influence
perception process. Some of these
are as follows :
• i) Social context
• ii) Organisational role
• iii)Location of event
INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION
• In order to function effectively in a
complex human society, we need to
perceive the behaviour, current moods and
traits of the persons around us. This is
known as social perception. It is also
called as interpersonal perception. It is
concerned with how one individual
perceives other individuals.
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• Zalking and Castello has conducted
research for better understanding of
interpersonal perception.
INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION….
• The specific characteristics of the perceiver,
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according to them are :
1. Knowing oneself makes it easier to see
others accurately.
2. One’s own characteristics affect the
characteristics one is likely to see in
others.
3. People who accept themselves are more
likely to be able to see favourable
aspects of other people.
4. Accuracy in perceiving others is not a
single skill.
INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION….
• Similarly the characteristics of the person
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who is being perceived are:
1. The status of the person perceived will
greatly influence others’ perception of
him.
2. The person being perceived is usually
placed into categories to simplify the
viewer’s perceptual activities. Two
common categories are status and role.
3. The visible traits of the person
perceived will greatly influence the
perception of him.
• The above characteristics suggest that the
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organisational members must realise that
their perceptions of others are greatly
influenced by characteristics of
themselves and characteristics of the
other person.
Further is necessary to develop perceptual
skills of oneself and others.
DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS
• Following attempts can be made to
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enhance perceptual skills.
1. Perceiving oneself accurately:
One should increase awareness about
self. For this, he should obtain information
on how others perceive us from as many
sources as possible. By knowing.
Perceiving and understanding ourselves
accurately, we should remove blind spots
about self.
DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS….
• 2. Being empathic :
Empathy means being able to see a
situation as it is experienced by others. A
manager should be sensitive to the needs
of others and perceive situations from
their point of view as well.
• 3. Having positive attitudes :
A manger should see things from a
positive angle, should be aware of
personal biases ad should try to get rid of
any negative feeling he may have of
others. This will help to put things in
proper perspective.
DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS….
• 4. Enhancing self – concept :
Self-concept or a good self image is a
function of how successfully we accomplish
the things we attempt to do. When people
perform roles where they exhibit their
competence and get success, they develop a
basic sense of self esteem and have positive
self regard.
• 5. Communication more openly :
Managers should be able to effectively
communicate to employees so that
misconceptions can be dispelled.
DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS….
• 6. Avoiding common biases in perceptions :
Managers should try to considerably
minimise their perceptual biases. They
should consciously raise their level of
awareness in their interactions with
situations.
• 7. Avoiding attributions :
Mangers should try to avoid making
inappropriate attributions and should obtain
as accurate as assessment of the situation
as possible so that dysfunctional
consequences can be avoided.
LEARNING
• “ You cannot teach a man anything.
You can only help him discover it
within himself.”
- Galileo
• “ You cannot give fish to a man
everyday. But if you teach how to
fish, he will have fish everyday.”
MEANING / DEFINITIONS
• Learning is the single most important
concept in the study of human behaviour.
• It is involved in almost everything we do.
Every aspect of human behaviour is
responsive to learning experiences –
knowledge, skills, attitudes, language, value
systems and personality traits.
• So we see that everything can be learned
through reasoning, thinking, information
processing ad perception.
MEANING / DEFINITIONS…
• “Learning can be defined as relatively
permanent change in behaviour the
potentiality that results from reinforced
practice or experience. - Steers & Porter.
• “Learning is any relatively permanent
change in behaviour that occurs as a result
of experience. - Stephen Robbins.
• In simple words, learning is a change in
behaviour acquired through experience.
MEANING / DEFINITIONS…
• Learning can be defined as a “relatively
permanent change in behaviour or potential
behaviour as a result of direct or indirect
experience”.
• There are two primary elements in this
definition that must both be present in order
to identify the process of learning.
MEANING / DEFINITIONS….
• First is the element that the change must
be relatively permanent. This means that
after “learning” our behaviour must be
different, either better or worse as
compared to our behaviour prior to this
experience of learning.
• The second aspect of the definition is that
this change must occur due to some kind
of experience or practice. This learning is
not caused by biological maturation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
• 1) Learning is an inferred process that is
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believed to influence behaviour.
2) Learning results in a relatively
permanent change in behaviour.
Behaviour that is learnt, therefore, is
relatively constant over time.
3) Learning involves change, it may be
good or bad.
4) Learning comes from some form of
experience. Experience may be acquired
directly through practice or observation
or through reading.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING…
• 5) Learning is source of change in
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behaviour and performance.
6) Learning is continuous process. It has
the ability to respond adequately to a
situation that may or may not have been
encountered. It is not restricted to the
schooldays but it is a lifelong process.
7) Learning is the outcome of various
related factors. The important factors that
determine learning are motive, stimuli,
response, reinforcement and retention.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
• There are five general approaches to
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learning that are identified.
They are :–
• i) Classical Conditioning Theory,
• ii) Instrumental or Operant Conditioning
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Theory,
iii) Cognitive Learning Theory,
iv) Selective Learning Theory and
v) Social Learning theory.
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Classical Conditioning Theory
• Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist owes
credit for developing this theory. He
conducted an experiment on dogs and
developed a stimulus- response
connection. This means that certain
responses can be predicted which
continuously result from certain induced
stimuli. Classical conditioning introduces a
simple cause-and-effect relationship
between one stimulus and one response.
• It also makes the response reflexive or
involuntary after the stimulus-response
relationship has been established. This
leaves no ground for making choices,
which differentiates human beings from
dogs. Under certain situations classical
conditioning does explain human
behaviour.
ii) Instrumental or Operant
Conditioning
Theory
• Operant conditioning is concerned with
learning that occurs as a consequence of
behaviour. It focuses on the effects of
reinforcements or rewards on desired
behaviours. This learning is based on the
simple fact that “the actions we perform
often result in some consequences”.
• This theory was developed by Watson, a
contemporary of Pavlov. He argued that
behaviour was largely influenced by the
rewards one received as result of actions.
In other words, we now know that people
change their behaviour by repeating acts
that are rewarded and not repeating acts
that the environment fails to reward.
iii) Cognitive Learning Theory
• Learning is considered as the outcome of
deliberate thinking about the problem or
situation both intuitively and based upon
known facts and responding in an
objective and goal oriented manner.
Cognition, in fact, is the act of knowing an
item of information and this knowledge
affects the behaviour of the person so that
the information provides cognitive cues
towards the expected goal.
iv) Selective Learning Theory
• Selective learning theory is also
cognitively based but it is more directly
aimed at learning. In selective learning the
person must not only associate stimulus
and response and consequence
experiences but must also determine
which things to connect in the mind. Under
this approach, a person chooses from a
wide variety of possible leaning
mechanisms.
• It involves a complex interaction among
thinking, emotions, perception and
motivation. Thus, there are many
cognitions that come into play in selective
learning. This theory is also named as
“insightful learning and perceptual
learning”. This is applied in relation to
complicated learning tasks.
v) Social Learning theory
• It is recognized that learning does not take place
only because of environmental stimuli (classical
and operant conditioning) or of individual
determinism (cognitive approach) but is a blend
of both views. It also emphasizes that people
acquire new behaviour by observing or imitating
others in a social setting. In addition learning
can also be gained by discipline and self-control
and an inner desire to acquire knowledge or
skills irrespective of the external rewards or
consequences. This process of self-control is
also partially a reflection of societal and cultural
influences on the development and growth of
human beings.
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• There are many widely recognised principles
of learning that can assist the manager
attempting to influence behaviour. Some of
these are principles are :
– i)
Reinforcements
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Punishments
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Avoidance Learning
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Extinction
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Knowledge of results
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Schedules of Positive Reinforcement
– vii) Acquisition - Learning curves
– viii) Spontaneous Recovery
Reinforcements
• Reinforcement plays a significant role in
the learning theories. It is defined as any
event that alters the probability of
occurrence of a response. It is anything
that both increases the strength of
responses and tends to induce repetitions
of the behaviour that preceded the
reinforcement. It is the process by which
stimuli strengthen behaviour.
Punishments
• Punishment is defined presenting an
uncomfortable consequence for a
particular behavioural response. It is used
to decrease the frequency of undesired
behaviour. The difference between
punishment and negative reinforcement is
that in the former case, a noxious
consequence is applied to decrease the
frequency of undesired behaviour,
whereas in the latter, a noxious
consequence is withheld when a desired
behaviour is exhibited.
Avoidance Learning
• Avoidance learning is the seeking to avoid
an unpleasant condition or outcome by
following a desired behaviour. In other
words, when behaviour can prevent an
uncomfortable stimulus it is called
avoidance behaviour. For example, if an
employee correctly performs a task so that
the supervisor may avoid harassing the
employee. Similarly, in order to avoid he
discomfort the employee may achieve the
group sanctioned level of production.
Extinction
• Extinction is non-reinforcement that leads
to an ‘extinction’ of undesired behaviour.
When the positive reinforcement for a
learned response is withheld, the
undesired behaviour decreases and will
eventually disappear. Thus, the decline in
response rate as a result of a lack of
positive reinforcement is called extinction.
• For example, if an employee is consistently
late, the supervisor may withhold praise.
Thus , the employee may realise that being
late is not leading to desired outcomes and
may try to be punctual.
Knowledge of results
• Human behaviour is always a goal-directed
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behaviour. Knowing goals and their results leads to
learning and behaviour modification. Employees
who have no idea o whether they are doing an
acceptable job have little chance to improve their
performances. The knowledge of correct behaviour
is reinforcing and strengthens the preceding
behaviour.
Edwin Locke found in his research studies that
feedback affects performance only to the extent to
which employees set higher performance goals in
response to such feedback. Thus, goals can be
achieved when employees are provided with
accurate feedback on performance.
Schedules of Positive Reinforcement
• There are number of ways in which
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reinforcements can be scheduled. A
continuous schedule is one in which
reinforcement occurs after every
acceptable behaviour. But this is not
feasible.
Bass and Vaughn have concluded that
“learning is more permanent when correct
behaviour is rewarded only part of the
time”.
Fester and Skinner have presented four
types of reinforcements schedules for
operant learning situations.
Acquisition - Learning curves
• These curves apply mainly to classical
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conditioning. This principle shows that
there is a gradually increasing strength of
response for each repeated trial.
Psychologist have shown the practical
significance of these curves to the learning
in the following ways :
a) The more unfamiliar the task to be
learned, the more likely it is that progress
will be slow at the start and will then
increase.
• b) In most learning of complicated skills,
there is at least one period, short or long.
In which each new trial produces an
improvement o equal size.
• c) As we approach the ultimate limit of
learning, progress slows down and it takes
many trials to produce even a small
amount of improvement..
Spontaneous Recovery
• Again this principle is related to classical
conditioning concept. This indicates that if
people experience a sequence of non
reinforced conditioned responses and then
take a rest, immediately thereafter they will
return to a more intense level of
conditioned response even though no
reinforcement has taken place. This jump in
response strength following rest is known
as the notion of spontaneous recovery. This
principle explains that the conditioned
response does not completely disappear
during extinction, but remains suppressed.
LEARNING PRINCIPLES
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All human beings can learn.
An individual must be motivated to
learn.
iii) Learning is active but not passive.
iv) Learners acquire knowledge more
rapidly with guidance.
v) Time must be provided to practice
learning.
vi) Learning methods should be varied.
vii) Standards of performance should be
set for the learners.
LEARNING PRINCIPLES…
• viii) Different levels of learning exist.
• ix) Learning is a cumulative process.
• x) Learning is closely related to
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attention and concentration.
xi) Trainees learn better when they
learn at their own place.
xii) Make the learning meaningful by
using familiar examples and
summaries.
xiii) When the learner has made the
correct responses to the learning
process, he has learned.-G.S.Sudha.
DETERMINANTS OF LEARNING
• The important factors that determine
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learning are:
i) Motive or drive
ii) Stimuli :- a) Generalisation
b) Discrimination
iii) Responses
iv) Reinforcements
v) Retention.
Motive or drive
• Motives refer to certain goals that the
individual attempts to achieve. They are
primary energisers of behaviour. Motives
prompt people to action. They are largely
subjective and represent the mental
feelings of human beings. They are the
ways o behaviour and main springs of
action. Motive arises continuously and
determines the general direction of an
individual’s behaviour.
Stimuli
• Stimuli exists in the environment in which
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a person lives. Stimuli increase the
probability of extracting a specific
response from a person. Stimuli may be
two types :
a) Generalisation
b) Discrimination.
• GENERALISATION takes place when the
similar stimulus repeats in the
environment. When two stimuli are
exactly the same, they will have the
probability to extract a specific response.
• DISCRIMINATION has wide applications in
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organisational behaviour in view of
individuals differences. In discrimination,
responses of the individuals vary
according to different stimuli.
For example. A supervisor may respond to
a high producing worker in a positive
manner, but in a different manner to one
producing very less.
Responses
• The stimulus generates response. The
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response may be in the physical form or in
terms of attitudes or perception. However,
the responses need to be operationally
defined and preferably physically
observable.
The response of the individuals is termed
as ‘ behaviour ‘. The response may be
either positive or negative.
Reinforcements
• Reinforcement is a primary condition of
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learning. Reinforcement is, anything that
increases the strength of response and
tends to induce repetitions of the
behaviour that precede the reinforcement.
Without reinforcement no quantifiable
alteration of behaviour will take place.
Reinforcement helps in the repetition of
any behaviour.
For example. If an employee is rewarded
for his hard work, he repeats his
behaviour, i.e. he works harder to get the
reward again.
Retention
• The learned behaviour should be retrieved
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according to the needs. Retention means
remembrance of learned behaviour over
time.
Learning which is forgotten over time is
called ‘extinction’.
When response behaviour returns without
any intervening reinforcement, it is called
“spontaneous recovery”.