Transcript mgt. function & ob

Organizational Behavior
What are the elements of an
organization?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
People / staff
Infrastructure / buildings / vehicles..
Technology / machines, medicines..
Resources/money and
Common objective/Goal
Organization
Goals
Objectives
E
E
Tasks
Infrastructure
People/Staff
& Technology
Resources
E
People who plan & control
E = Environment
E
Social
Economic
Religious
Political/Administrative
People who plan & control an organization are called MANAGERS
Owners of the organization may or may not be managers
An Alternative Definition
• An organization
– involves the interactions and efforts of People
– in order to achieve Objectives
– channelled and coordinated through Structure
– directed and controlled via Management
[Mullins 1996]
The Hawthorne Studies
A group of studies conducted at the
Hawthorne plant of the Western
Electric Company during the late 1920’s
and early 1930’s
The Hawthorne Studies
• Elton Mayo hired to explain the results of a
study of illumination on productivity and
Western Electric
• Conducted two additional studies
– Relay Room
– Bank Wiring Room
Bank Wiring Room
•
•
•
•
Introduced incentive pay system.
Expected individual worker output to increase.
Found no change in worker output.
Workers established informal norms because
they feared the company would increase their
quota.
Impact of the Hawthorne Studies
• Elton Mayo is considered the father of the
Human Relations movement
• Human Relations recognizes that there are
other factors beyond rational economics that
drive individual behavior.
• Productivity and satisfaction are inextricably
linked—You cannot forget the human side of
the equation
Enter Organizational Behavior
Toward an OB Discipline
Behavioural
science
Psychology
Sociology
Contribution
Learning
Motivation
Perception
Training
Leadership effectiveness
Job satisfaction
Individual decision making
Performance appraisal
Attitude measurement
Employee selection
Work design
Work stress
Individual
Group
Behavioural change
Attitude change
Communication
Group processes
Group decision making
Comparative values
Comparative attitudes
Cross-cultural analysis
Anthropology
Organizational culture
Organizational environment
Political science
Output
Group dynamics
Work teams
Communication
Power
Conflict
Intergroup behaviour
Formal organization theory
Organizational technology
Organizational change
Organizational culture
Social psychology
Unit of
analysis
Conflict
Intraorganizational politics
Power
Organization
system
Study of
Organizational
Behaviour
Contributing Disciplines to the OB
Field
EXHIBIT
1-3a
Contributing Disciplines to the OB
Field
EXHIBIT
1-3b
Contributing Disciplines to the OB
Field
EXHIBIT
1-3c
Contributing Disciplines to the OB
Field
EXHIBIT
1-3d
Contributing Disciplines to the OB
Field
EXHIBIT
1-3f
FUNDAMENTALS OF
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
PSYCHOLOGIST KURT LEVIN
B = F (P, E)
SO THAT BEHAVIOUR (B) IS A FUNCTION (F) OF A
PERSON (P) AND ENVIRONMENT (E) AROUND HIM.
INHERITED CHARACTERISTICS
• PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• INTELLIGENCE
• SEX
• AGE
• RELIGION
LEARNED CHARACTERISTICS
• PERCEPTION
• ATTITUDE
• PERSONALITY
• VALUES
PERSONALITY CIRCLE
PERCEPTION
PERSONALITY
LEARNING
Personality
• Personality consists of the stable psychological traits and
behavioral attributes that gives a person his or her
identity.
• The Big Five Personality Dimensions
– Extroversion
– Agreeableness
– Conscientiousness
– Emotional stability
– Openness to experience
Personality Defined
• Personality represents the unique and
relatively stable pattern of behaviors,
thoughts, and emotions characterizing an
individual
– Identity (internal and subjective)
– Reputation (external and objective)
Personality
• A person’s characteristic pattern of
thinking, feeling, and acting that is
consistent across time and situations
• Relatively enduring underlying
dispositions that influence behavior
across situations
The Origins of Personality
DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
HEREDITY
• BIOLOGICAL FEATURES
• BRAIN STIMULATION
• BIO FEEDBACK
ENVIRONMENT
• CULTURE
• RELIGION
• FAMILY
• PARENTAL INFLUENCES
• SIBLINGS INFLUENCE
• SCHOOL
• PLACE OF WORK
SITUATION
The Big Five Model of Personality
• Extroversion
• Neuroticism
• Agreeableness
• Conscientiousness
• Openness to Experience
The Hierarchical Organization of
Personality
Source: Adapted from R. R. McCrae and P. T. Costa, "Discriminant Validity of NEO-PIR Facet
Scales,” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52, pp. 229–237. Copyright 1992. Reprinted
by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.
Extroversion
• The tendency to
experience positive
emotional states and
feel good about oneself
and the world around
one; also called positive
affectivity.
• Specific traits include
positive emotions,
gregariousness, and
warmth
Neuroticism
• The tendency to
experience negative
emotional states and
view oneself and the
world around one
negatively; also called
negative affectivity.
• Specific traits include
anxiety, selfconsciousness, and
vulnerability.
Agreeableness
• Specific traits
• The tendency to
include trust,
get along well with
straightforwardnes
others.
s and tendermindedness.
Conscientiousness
• The extent to
which a person is
careful,
scrupulous, and
persevering.
• Specific traits
include
competence,
order and selfdiscipline.
Openness to Experience
• The extent to
• Specific traits
which a person is
include fantasy,
original, has broad
actions, and ideas.
interests, and is
willing to take
risks.
Traits versus Types
• Traits represent single dimensions of
personality
• Types represent constellations of traits
Main
SIXTEEN
PRIMARY
TRAITS
Opposite
1.
Reserved
Outgoing
2.
Less intelligent
More intelligent
3.
Affected by Feelings
Emotionally Stable
4.
Submissive
Dominant
5.
Serious
Happy-go-lucky
6.
Expedient
Conscientious
7.
Timid
Venturesome
8.
Tough-minded
Sensitive
9.
Trusting
Suspicious
10
11
Practical
Imaginative
Forthright
Shrewd
12
13
Self-assured
Apprehensive
Conservative
Experimenting
14
Group-dependent
Controlled
15
Uncontrolled
Controlled
16
Relaxed
Tense
Other Personality Models
• Myers Briggs Type Indicator
– Extroversion-Introversion
– Thinking-Feeling
– Sensing-Intution
– Judging-Perceiving
• Scores on each one of these “traits” is less
important than your overall type.
Type A/B Personality
• Type A: a behavior pattern involving high
levels of competitiveness, time urgency, and
irritability
• Type B: a behavior pattern characterized by a
casual, laid back style.
• What is the effect of Type on health, personal
relations, and task performance?
Positive-Negative Affectivity
• Positive Affectivity: the tendency to
experience positive moods regardless of the
situation.
• Negative Affectivity: the tendency to
experience negative moods regardless of the
situation.
• What is the impact of affectivity on
performance?
Other Personality Traits at
Work
• Self-Efficacy
– A person’s beliefs about his or her
capabilities to perform a task.
• Authoritarianism
– The extent to which a person believes that
power and status differences are
appropriate within hierarchical social
systems such as organizations.
JUNGIAN PERSONALITY TYPE
Sensing Personality
(S)
Intuitive Personality
(N)
Thinking (T) Rational, logical,
empirical, objective,
Money-oriented
efforts, Risk avoider,
short-sighted.
Broad viewer,
imaginative, wider
options, risk takers,
long-sighted.
Feeling (F)
Broad view of personal
situation, peopleoriented, subjective,
venturesome.
Empirical, personal
values, subjectivity,
considering other
views, risk takers,
status-conscious.
• Locus of Control
– The extent to which people believe that
their behavior has a real effect on what
happens to them.
• People who believe that individuals are
in control of their lives are said to have
an internal locus of control.
• People who think that forces beyond
their control dictate what happens to
them are said to have an external locus
of control.
Authoritarianism
Persons having authoritarian personality believe in status and
power differences.
Risk Propensity
People like or dislike risk-taking; that is, people have different
risk propensities for assuming or avoiding risks.
Dogmatism
Dogmatism is a traditional view. People are traditional and take
routine decisions.
Other Personality Traits at Work
• Machiavellianism
– People who possess this personality trait
behave to gain power and control over the
behavior of others.
– High mach’s are very similar to psychopaths
• Charming with no remorse, guilt, or empathy
• Performance implications?
VALUES
BASIC CONVICTIONS THAT A SPECIFIC MODE
OF CONDUCT OR END-STATE OF EXISTENCE
IS PERSONALLY OR SOCIALLY PREFERABLE TO
AN OPPOSITE OR CONVERSE MODE OF
CONDUCT OR END-STATE OF EXISTENCE.
VALUE SYSTEM
A HIERARCHY BASED ON A RANKING OF AN
INDIVIDUAL’S VALUES IN TERMS OF THEIR
INTENSITY.
ALL OF US HAVE A HIERARCHY OF VALUES
THAT FORMS OUR VALUE SYSTEM. THIS
SYSTEM IS IDENTIFIED BY THE RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE WE ASSIGN TO SUCH VALUES
AS FREEDOM, PLEASURE, SELF-RESPECT,
HONESTY, OBEDIENCE AND EQUALITY.
SOURCES OF OUR VALUE SYSTEM
A SIGNIFICANT PORTION IS GENETICALLY
DETERMINED. THE REST IS ATTRIBUTABLE
TO FACTORS LIKE NATIONAL CULTURE,
PARENTAL DICTATES, TEACHERS, FRIENDS,
AND SIMILAR ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES.
TYPES OF VALUES
ALLPORT AND ASSOCIATES
THEORETICAL
1. ECONOMIC
2. AESTHETIC
3. SOCIAL
4. POLITICAL
5. RELIGIOUS
ROKEACH VALUE SURVEY
TERMINAL VALUES: DESIRABLE END-STATES OF
EXISTENCE; THE GOALS THAT A PERSON WOULD LIKE TO
ACHIEVE DURING HIS OR HER LIFETIME.
INSTRUMENTAL VALUES: PREFERABLE MODES OF
BEHAVIOUR OR MEANS OF ACHIEVING ONE’S TERMINAL
VALUES.
TERMINAL AND INSTRUMENTAL VALUES
IN ROKEACH VALUE SURVEY
Terminal Values
• Comfortable life
• Exciting life
• Sense of accomplishment
• World at peace
• World of beauty
• Equality
• Family Security
• Freedom
• Happiness
• Inner harmony
• Mature love
• National security
• Pleasure
• Salvation
• Self-respect
• Social recognition
• True friendship
• Wisdom
Instrumental Values
• Ambitious
• Broad-minded
• Capable
• Cheerful
• Clean
• Courageous
• Forgiving
• Helpful
• Honest
• Imaginative
• Independent
• Intellectual
• Logical
• Loving
• Obedient
• Polite
• Responsible
• Self-controlled
LEADERSHIP
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LEADERSHIP IS DEFINED AS INFLUENCE, THAT IS,
THE ART OR PROCES OF INFLUENCING PEOPLE SO
THAT THEY WILL STRIVE WILLINGLY AND
ENTHUSIASTICALLY TOWARDS THE ACHIEVEMENT
OF GROUP GOALS.
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LEADERSHIP
THE PROCESS OF DIRECTING AND INFLUENCING THE
TASK-RELATED ACTIVITIES OF GROUP MEMBERS.
FIRST, LEADERSHIP INVOLVES OTHER PEOPLE –
EMPLOYEES OR FOLLOWERS. BY THEIR
WILLINGNESS TO ACCEPT DIRECTIONS FROM THE
LEADER, GROUP MEMBERS HELP DEFINE THE
LEADER’S STATUS AND MAKE THE LEADERSHIP
PROCESS POSSIBLE; WITHOUT PEOPLE TO LEAD, ALL
THE LEADERSHIP QUALITIES OF A MANAGER WOULD
BE IRRELEVANT.
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SECOND, LEADERSHIP INVOLVES AND UNEQUAL
DISTRIBUTION OF POWER BETWEEN LEADERS AND GROUP
MEMBERS. GROUP MEMBERS ARE NOT POWERLESS; THEY
CAN AND DOSHAPE GROUP ACTIVITIES IN A NUMBER OF
WAYS.
A THIRD ASPECT OF LEADERSHIP IS THE ABILITY TO USE THE
DIFFERENT FORMS OF POWER TO INFLUENCE
FOLLOWERS’ BEHAVIORS IN A NUMBER OF WAYS. INDEED,
LEADERS HAVE INFLUENCED SOLDIERS TO KILL AND
LEADERS HAVE INFLUENCED EMPLOYEES TO MAKE
PERSONAL SACRIFICES FOR THE GOOD OF THE COMPANY.
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FOURTH ASPECT COMBINES THE FIRST
THREE AND ACKNOWLEDGES THAT
LEADERSHIP IS ABOUT VALUES. MORAL
LEADERSHIP CONCERNS VALUES AND
REQUIRES THAT FOLLOWERS BE GIVEN
ENOUGH KNOWLEDGE OF ALTERNATIVES
TO MAKE INTELLIGENT CHOICES WHEN IT
COMES TIME TO RESPOND TO A LEADER’S
PROPOSAL TO LEAD.
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INGREDIENTS OF LEADERSHIP
1. THE ABILITY TO USE POWER EFFECTIVELY AND IN
A RESPONSIBLE MANNER,
2. THE ABILITY TO COMPREHEND THAT HUMAN
BEINGS HAVE DIFFERENT MOTIVATION FORCES
AT DIFFERENT TIMES AND IN DIFFERENT
SITUATIONS
3. THE ABILITY TO INSPIRE, AND
4. THE ABILITY TO ACT IN A MANNER THAT WILL
DEVELOP A CLIMATE CONDUCIVE TO RESPONDING
TO AND AROUSING MOTIVATIONS.
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LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS
THE GROUP-MAINTENANCE AND TASK-RELATED
ACTIVITIES THAT MUST BE PERFORMED BY THE
LEADER, OR SOMEONE ELSE, FOR A GROUP TO
PERFORM EFFECTIVELY.
LEADERSHIP STYLES
THE VARIOUS PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR FAVORED BY
LEADERS DURING THE PROCESS OF DIRECTING AND
INFLUENCING WORKERS.
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THE TRAIT APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
IN SEARCHING FOR MEASURABLE LEADERSHIP
TRAITS,RESEARCHERS HAVE TAKEN TWO
APPROACHES COMPARING THE TRAITS OF THOSE
WHO HAVE EMERGED AS LEADERS WITH THE
TRAITS OF THOSE WHOHAVE NOT; AND (2)
COMPARING THE TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE
LEADERS WITH THOSE OF INEFFECTIVE LEADERS.
•
LEADERS AND NONLEADERS
•
EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE LEADERS
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LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR AND STYLES
1. LEADERSHIP BASED ON THE USE OF AUTHORITY,
2. LIKERT’S FOUR SYSTEMS OF MANAGING,
3. THE MANAGERIAL GRID, AND
4. LEADERSHIP INVOLVING A VARIETY OF STYLES,
RANGING FROM A MAXIMUM TO A MINIMUM USE
OF POWER AND INFLUENCE.
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THE FLOW OF INFLUENCE WITH THREE LEADERSHIP STYLES
AUTOCRATIC
LEADER
FOLLOWER
FOLLOWER
FOLLOWER
DEMOCRATIC
OR
PARTICIPATIVE
LEADER
FOLLOWER
FOLLOWER
FOLLOWER
FREE-REIN
LEADER
FOLLOWER
FOLLOWER
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MANAGERIAL GRID
DEVELOPED SOME YEARS AGO BY ROBERT BLAKE AND JANE
MOUTON.
GRID DIMENSIONS
THE GRID HAS TWO DIMENSIONS: CONCERN FOR PEPOLE AND
CONCERN FOR PRODUCTION.
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FOUR EXTREME STYLES
1.1 STYLE (REFERRED TO AS “IMPOVERISHED
MANAGEMENT”)
9.9 MANAGERS – TEAM MANAGERS
1.9 MANAGEMENT (CALLED “COUNTRY CLUB
MANAGEMENT” BY SOME)
9.1 MANAGERS (SOMETIMES REFERRED TO
“AUTOCRATIC TASK MANAGERS”)
5.5 MANAGERS AUTOCRATIC ATTITUDE TOWARD
PEOPLE
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The Management Grid
9-
87-
9,9
Team management
Work accomplishment is from
committed people, interdependence through a “common
stake” in organization purpose
leads to relationships of trust
and respect.
1,9
Country club management
Thoughtful attention to needs
of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable,
friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo.
65-
5.5
Organization man management
Adequate organization performance is
possible through balancing the necessity
to get out work with maintaining morale
9,1
of people at a satisfactory level. Authority-obedience
43-
1,1
Impoverished management
2- Exertion of minimum effort to
get required work done is
appropriate to sustain
1- organization membership.
1
2
3
Efficiency in operations results
From arranging conditions of
Work in such a way that human
Elements interfere to a
minimum degree.
4
5
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7
8
9
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FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
FRED E. FIEDLER AND HIS ASSOCIATES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF
ILLINOIS HAVE SUGGESTED A CONTINGENCY THEORY OF
LEADERSHIP. THE THEORY HOLDS THAT PEOPLE BECOME LEADERS
NOT ONLY BECAUSE OF THE ATTRIBUTES OF THEIR PERSONALITIES
BUT ALSO BECAUSE OF VARIOUS SITUATIONAL FACTORS AND THE
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN LEADERS AND GROUP MEMBERS.
CRITICAL DIMENSIONS OF THE LEADERSHIP SITUATION
1.
POSITION POWER
2.
TASK STRUCTURE
3.
LEADER-MEMBER RELATIONS
LEADERSHIP STYLES
FAVORABLENESS OF SITUATION
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A PATH-GOAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
PATH-GOAL MODEL
A LEADERSHIP THEORY EMPHASIZING THE LEADER’S
ROLE IN CLARIFYING FOR SUBORDINATES HOW THEY
CAN ACHIEVE HIGH PERFORMANCE AND ITS ASSOCIATED
REWARDS.
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PATH-GOAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS
THE PATH-GOAL THEORY SUGGESTS THAT THE MAIN FUNCTION OF
THE LEADER IS TO CLARIFY AND SET GOALS WITH SUBORDINATES,
HELP THEM FIND THE BEST PATH FOR ACHIEVING THE GOALS,AND
REMOVE OBSTACLES.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP SHOULD
INCLUDE:
1.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBORDINATES, SUCH AS THEIR NEEDS,
SELF-CONFIDENCE, AND ABILITIES; AND
2.
THE WORK ENVIORNMENT, INCLUDING SUCH COMPONENTS AS
THE TASK, THE REWARD SYSTEM, AND THE RELATIONSHIP WITH
COWORKERS.
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CONTINGENCY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
CONTINGENCY APPROACH
THE VIEW THAT THE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUE THAT
BEST CONTRIBUTES TO THE ATTAINMENT OF
ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS MIGHT VARY IN DIFFERENT
TYPES OF SITUATIONS OR CIRCUMSTANCES.
SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODEL
AN APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP DEVELOPED BY HERSEY
AND BLANCHARD THAT DESCRIBES HOW LEADERS
SHOULD ADJUST THEIR LEADERSHIP STYLE IN RESPONSE
TO THEIR SUBORDINATES’ EVOLVING DESIRE FOR
ACHIEVEMENT, EXPERIENCE, ABILITY, AND WILLINGNESS
TO ACCEPT RESPONSIBILITY.
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LEADERSHIP STYLE AND THE WORK SITUATION:
THE FIEDLER MODEL
LEAST PREFERRED CO-WORKER (LPC)
FIEDLER’S MEASURING INSTRUMENT FOR LOCATING A
MANAGER ON THE LEADERSHIP-STYLE CONTINUUM.
LEADER-MEMBER RELATIONS
THE QUALITY OF THE INTERACTION BETWEEN A LEADER
AND HIS OR HER EMPLOYEES; ACCORDING TO FIEDLER,
THE MOST IMPORTANT INFLUENCE ON THE MANAGER’S
POWER.
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TASK STRUCTURE
A WORK SITUATION VARIABLE THAT, ACCORDING TO
FIEDLER, HELPS DETERMINE A MANAGER’S POWER. IN
STRUCTURED TASKS, MANAGERS AUTOMATICALLY
HAVE HIGH POWER; IN UNSTRUCTURED TASKS, THEIR
POWERIS DIMINISHED.
POSITION POWER
THE POWER, ACCORDING TO FIEDLER, THAT IS
INHERENT IN THE FORMAL POSITION THE LEADER
HOLDS. THIS POWER MAY BE GREAT OR SMALL,
DEPENDING ON THESPECIFIC POSITION.
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THE FUTURE OF LEADERSHIP THEORY
TRANSACTIONAL LEADERS
LEADERS WHO DETERMINE WHAT SUBORDINATES NEED
TO DO TO ACHIEVE OBJECTIVES, CLASSIFY THOSE
REQUIREMENTS, AND HELP SUBORDINATES BECOME
CONFIDENT THEY CAN REACH THEIR OBJECTIVES.
TRANSFORMED LEADERS
LEADERS WHO, THROUGH THEIR PERSONAL VISION AND
ENERGY, INSPIRE FOLLOWERS AND HAVE A MAJOR
IMPACT ON THEIR ORGANIZATINOS; ALSO CALLED
CHARISMATIC LEADERS.
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A CHARISMATIC LEADER
OCCASIONALLY A LEADER EMERGES WHOSE HIGH
VISIBILITY AND PERSONAL CHARISMA CATCHES THE
PUBLIC CONSCIOUSNESS. NOW-RETIRED AUTOINDUSTRY EXECUTIVE LEE LACOCCA, WHO LED
CHRYSLER CORPORATION BACK FROM THE EDGE OF
BANKRUPTCY, ENGENDERED CONSIDERABLE PUBLIC
RECOGNITION AND SUPPORT.
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ATTITUDES
ATTITUDES
EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS OR JUDGMENTS
CONCERNING OBJECTS, PEOPLE, OR
EVENTS.
COGNITIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE
THE OPINION OR BELIEF SEGMENT OF AN
ATTITUDE.
AFFECTIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE
THE EMOTIONAL OR FEELING SEGMENT OF AN
ATTITUDE.
BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE
AN INTENTION TO BEHAVE IN A CERTAIN WAY
TOWARD SOMEONE OR SOMETHING.
TYPES OF ATTITUDE
A PERSON CAN HAVE THOUSANDS OF ATTITUDES, BUT
OB FOCUSES OUR ATTENTION ON A VERY LIMITED
NUMBER OF JOB-RELATED ATTITUDES. THESE JOBRELATED ATTITUDES TAP POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE
EVALUATIONS THAT EMPLOYEES HOLD ABOUT ASPECTS
OF THEIR WORK ENVIRONMENT. MOST OF THE
RESEARCH IN OB HAS BEEN CONCERNED WITH THREE
ATTITUDES: JOB SATISFACTION, JOB INVOLVEMENT,
AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT.
JOB SATISFACTION
THE TERM JOB SATISFACTION REFERS TO AN
INDIVIDUAL’S GENERAL ATTITUDE TOWARD HIS
OR HER JOB. A PERSON WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF JOB
SATISFACTION HOLDS POSITIVE ATTITUDES TOWARD THE JOB; A
PERSON WHO IS DISSATISFIED WITH HIS OR HER JOB HOLDS
NEGATIVE ATTITUDES ABOUT THE JOB.
JOB INVOLVEMENT
THE DEGREE TO WHICH A PERSON IDENTIFIES WITH
HIS OR HER JOB, ACTIVELY PARTICIPATES IN IT, AND
CONSIDERS HIS OR HER PERFORMANCE IMPORTANT
TO SELF-WORTH.
EMPLOYEES WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF JOB INVOLVEMENT
STRONGLY IDENTIFY WITH AND REALLY CARE ABOUT
THE KIND OF WORK THEY DO. HIGH LEVELS OF JOB
INVOLVEMENT HAVE BEEN FOUND TO BE RELATED TO
FEWER ABSENCES AND LOWER RESIGNATION RATES.
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT
THE DEGREE TO WHICH AN EMPLOYEE IDENTIFIES
WITH A PARTICULAR ORGANIZATION AND ITS
GOALS,
AND WISHES TO MAINTAIN MEMBERSHIP IN THE
ORGANIZATION.
SO HIGH JOB INVOLVEMENT MEANS
IDENTIFYING WITH
ONE’S SPECIFIC JOB; HIGH ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMITMENT MEANS IDENTIFYING WITH
ONE’S
EMPLOYING ORGANIZATION.
MODELS OF ATTITUDE
•
COGNITIVE MODEL
•
OBJECT MODEL
•
BEHAVIOUR MODEL
•
PERFORMANCE MODEL
ATTITUDE FORMATION
• CLASSICAL ATTITUDE FORMATION
• INSTRUMENT OR OPERANT ATTITUDE FORMATION
• COGNITIVE ATTITUDE FORMATION
ATTITUDE CHANGE
• CHANGING MOTIVES OF EMPLOYEES
• ADMIRING EMPLOYEES
• COMPARING CONFLICTING ATTITUDES
• CHANGING THE BELIEFS
“HAPPY EMPLOYEE IS A PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYEE”
Job satisfaction can be defined as the extent of positive feelings or
attitudes that individuals have towards their jobs. When a person
says that he has high job satisfaction, it means that he really likes
his job, feels good about it and values his job highly.
WHAT DETERMINES JOB SATISFACTION?
• Mentally challenging work.
• Equitable rewards.
• Supportive working conditions.
• Supportive colleagues
• Don’t forget the personality – Job fit.
SOURCES OF JOB SATISFACTION
1. Organizational factors.
2. Work environmental factors.
3. Factors related to work itself.
4. Personal factors.
1.
2.
ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS
•
Salaries and wages
•
Promotions
•
Company policies
WORK ENVIRONMENT
•
Supervisory style
•
Work group
•
Working conditions
3.
WORK ITSELF
The job content has two aspects. One is the “job scope” that
involves the amount of responsibility. The second aspect is
variety. It has been found that a moderate amount of variety
is most effective.
4.
PERSONAL FACTORS
THE EFFECT OF JOB SATISFACTION
ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE
• Satisfaction and Productivity
• Satisfaction and Absenteeism
• Satisfaction and Turnover
HOW EMPLOYEES CAN EXPRESS DISSATISFACTION
Responses to Job Dissatisfaction
Active
EXIT
VOICE
Destructive
Constructive
NEGLECT
LOYALTY
Passive
Exit
Dissatisfaction expressed through behavior directed toward leaving
the organization.
Voice
Dissatisfaction expressed through active and constructive attempts
to improve conditions.
Loyalty
Dissatisfaction expressed by passively waiting for conditions to
improve.
Neglect
Dissatisfaction expressed through allowing conditions to worsen.
CONSEQUENCES OF JOB DISSATISFACTION
• Employee unrest
• Absenteeism
• Tardiness
• Employee turnover
• Union activity
• Early retirement
• A job satisfaction
PERCEPTION
Chronological Development of Law
Notion
Perception
Conception
Assumption
Theory
Law
PERCEPTION
• A PROCESS BY WHICH INDIVIDUALS ORGANIZE
AND INTERPRET THEIR SENSORY IMPRESSION IN
ORDER TO GIVE MEANING TO THEIR
ENVIRONMENT
Perception
• Perception
– The process of selecting, organizing, and
interpreting environmental information.
– Based on internal factors (e.g., personality)
and external factors (e.g., accuracy of
information).
– Self-esteem describes how individuals
perceive themselves.
Factors that Influence Perception
Factors in the perceiver
• Attitudes
• Motives
• Interests
• Experience
• Expectations
Factors in the situation
• Time
• Work setting
• Social setting
Perception
Factors in the target
• Novelty
• Motion
• Sounds
• Size
• Background
• Proximity
THE PERCEIVER
• WHEN AN INDIVIDUAL LOOKS AT A TARGET
AND ATTEMPTS TO INTERPRET WHAT HE OR
SHE SEES, THAT INTERPRETATION IS HEAVILY
INFLUENCED BY PERSONAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIVIDUAL
PERCEIVER.
• A MAJOR REASON IS THAT THEY HOLD
DIVERGENT ATTITUDES CONCERNING LARGE
CLASSES.
• UNSATISFIED NEEDS OR MOTIVES STIMULATE
INDIVIDUALS AND MAY EXERT A STRONG
INFLUENCE
ON THEIR PERCEPTIONS.
• THE FOCUS OF OUR ATTENTION APPEARS TO
BE INFLUENCED BY OUR INTERESTS.
• EXPECTATIONS CAN DISTORT YOUR
PERCEPTIONS IN THAT YOU WILL SEE WHAT
YOU EXPECT TO SEE.
THE TARGET
•CHARACTERISTICS IN THE TARGET THAT IS BEING
OBSERVED CAN AFFECT WHAT IS PERCEIVED.
• BECAUSE TARGETS ARE NOT LOOKED AT IN ISOLATION.
• THE RELATIONSHIP OF A TARGET TO ITS BACKGROUND
INFLUENCES PERCEPTION, AS DOES OUR TENDENCY TO
GROUP CLOSE THINGS AND SIMILAR THINGS TOGETHER
THE SITUATION
• THE CONTEXT IN WHICH WE SEE OBJECTS OR
EVENTS IS IMPORTANT. ELEMENTS IN THE
SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCE
OUR PERCEPTIONS.
• THE TIME AT WHICH AN OBJECT OR EVENT IS
SEEN CAN INFLUENCE
ATTENTION, AS CAN LOCATION, LIGHT, HEAT, OR
ANY NUMBER OF SITUATIONAL FACTORS.
Person Perception: Making
Judgments About Others
Attribution theory
This theory has been proposed to develop
explanations of the ways in which we judge people
differently, depending on what meaning we attribute
to a given behavior.
Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe
an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine
whether it was internally or externally caused.
Person Perception: Making
Judgments About Others,
Determinants:
1. Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different
situations.
2. Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.
3. Consistency: responds in the same way over time.
Attribution
Theory
Errors and Biases in Attributions
Errors and Biases in Attributions
BARRIERS TO PERCEPTUAL
ACCURACY
Selective Perception
• People selectively interpret what
they see based on their interests,
background,
attitudes.
experience,
and
Halo Effect
• Drawing a general impression
about an individual based on a
single characteristic.
Selective Perception
• People selectively interpret what
they see based on their interests,
background, experience, and
attitudes.
Contrast Effects
• Evaluation of a person’s characteristics
that are affected by comparisons with
other people recently encountered
who rank higher or lower on the same
characteristics.
Projection
• Attributing one’s own
characteristics to other people.
Stereotyping
• Judging someone on the basis of one’s
perception of the group
to which that person belongs.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
• When one person inaccurately
perceives a second person and the
resulting expectations cause the
second person to behave in ways
consistent with the original
perception.
Overcoming Biases
• Don’t overlook external causes of
others’ behavior
• Identify and confront your
stereotypes
• Evaluate people based on objective
factors
• Avoid making rash judgments
SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS
• EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW
• PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS
• PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
• EMPLOYEE EFFORT
• EMPLOYEE LOYALTY
Specific Applications of Shortcuts
in Organization
• Employment Interview
– Perceptual biases affect the accuracy of
interviewers’ judgments of applicants.
• Performance Expectations
– Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect): The
lower or higher performance of employees
reflects preconceived leader expectations
about employee capabilities.
• Performance Evaluations
– Appraisals are subjective perceptions of
performance.
• Employee Effort
– Assessment of individual effort is a subjective
judgment subject to perceptual distortion and
bias.
• Employee Loyalty
– Employee support towards the organization.
• Whistle-Blowers
– Individuals who report unethical practices by
their employer to outsiders.
Motivation
• The willingness to exert high
levels of effort toward
organizational goals,
conditioned by the effort’s
ability to satisfy some
individual need.
Need
• Some internal state that makes
certain outcomes appear
attractive
Work Motivation:
The psychological forces that
determine the direction of a person’s
behavior in an organization, a
person’s level of effort, and a person’s
level of persistence.
Work Motivation
• Direction of Behavior - Which behaviors does
a person choose to perform in an
organization?
• Level of Effort - How hard does a person work
to perform a chosen behavior? (Arousal)
Work Motivation
• Level of Persistence - When faced with
obstacles, roadblocks, and stone walls,
how hard does a person keep trying to
perform a chosen behavior successfully?
(Maintaining)
Early Theories of
Motivation
Need-Based Theories of
Motivation
The basic
theories is
motivated
deficiencies
important
categories.
premise of need
that humans are
primarily
by
in one or more
needs or need
The Hierarchy of Needs
• Developed by psychologist Abraham
Maslow in the 1940s.
• Maslow believed that people have an
innate desire to satisfy a given set of needs.
• Maslow believed that these needs are
arranged in a hierarchy of importance, with
the most basic needs at the foundation of
the hierarchy.
The Hierarchy of Needs
• Maslow believed that each need level must be
satisfied before the level above it becomes
important.
• The escalation up the hierarchy continues
until the self-actualization needs become the
primary motivators.
The Hierarchy of Needs
Selfactualization
Esteem
Affiliation
Security
Physiological
• Lower Order Needs:
Needs that are satisfied externally;
physiological and safety needs.
Higher Order Needs:
Needs that are satisfied internally;
social, esteem, and self-actualization
needs.
The Hierarchy of Needs
• Physiological Needs:
Adequate wages, ventilation, and comfortable
temperatures and working conditions are measures
taken to satisfy this most basic level of need.
• Security Needs:
Security needs can be satisfied by such things as job
continuity, a grievance system, and an adequate
insurance and retirement system.
The Hierarchy of Needs
• Affiliation Needs
– Managers can help satisfy these needs by
fostering a sense of group identity and
interaction among employees.
• Esteem Needs
– These needs are met at least partially by job
titles, choice offices, merit pay increases,
awards, and other forms of recognition.
The Hierarchy of Needs
• Self-Actualization Needs
– The drive to become what one is capable of
becoming.
– Achieved when people meet their full
potential.
– These needs are the hardest to understand
and the most difficult to satisfy.
ERG Theory
–Represents an extension and
refinement of the need hierarchy
theory by Clayton Alderfer.
–The ERG theory describes existence,
relatedness, and growth needs.
Existence
Concerned with providing our basic
material existence requirements. It
includes the items that Maslow considered
physiological and safety needs.
Relatedness
The desire we have for maintaining important
interpersonal relationships. The social and
status desires require interaction with others
if they are re-satisfied and they align with
Maslow’s social need and external component
of Maslow’s esteem classification.
Growth
An intrinsic desire for personal development.
These include the intrinsic component from
Maslow’s esteemed category and the
characteristics included self-actualization.
ERG theory
–The ERG theory suggests that if
people become frustrated trying to
satisfy one set of needs, they will
regress back to the previously
satisfied set of needs.
How does ERG Theory differ
from Maslow’s
In contrast to hierarchy of need theory, the
ERG Theory demonstrates:
1. More than one need may be operative at the
same time.
2. If the gratification of higher level need is
stifled, the desire to satisfy lower-level need
increases.
The Dual-Structure Theory
(Motivation –Hygiene Theory)
• Developed by Frederick Herzberg
• Herzberg conceptualized motivation as a
dual structure phenomenon consisting
of motivation factors and hygiene
factors.
–Motivation factors are intrinsic to
the work itself and include factors
such
as
achievement
and
recognition. These factors cause
motivation and satisfaction.
The Dual-Structure Theory
• Motivation and hygiene factors (continued)
– Hygiene factors are extrinsic to the work itself and
include factors such as pay and job security.
– These factors do not necessarily lead to
satisfaction. If inadequate, however, these factors
can lead to dissatisfaction.
The Dual-Structure Theory
Motivation Factors
Hygiene Factors
- Achievement
- Supervision
- Recognition
- Working Conditions
- The work itself
- Pay and Job Security
- Responsibility
- Company Policies
- Advancement
- Relationships
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Achievement power, and affiliation are three
important needs that help to understand motivation.
Learned Needs Theory (nAch)
• Most frequently associated with the work of
David McClelland.
– Need for Achievement (nAch)
– Need for Affiliation (nAff)
– Need for Power (nPow)
The Need for Achievement
• The need for achievement is the
desire to accomplish a task or goal
more effectively than in the past.
The Need for Affiliation
• The need for human companionship.
• Individuals with a high need for affiliation
tend to want reassurance and approval
from others and usually are genuinely
concerned about others’ feelings.
• People with a high need for affiliation often
work in jobs with a lot of interpersonal
contact.
The Need for Power
• The desire to control the resources in one’s
environment.
• People with a high need for power can be
successful managers if three conditions are
met:
– They must seek power for the betterment of the
organization rather than for their own interests.
The Need for Power
• Three Conditions (continued)
– They must have a fairly low need for affiliation
(fulfilling a personal need for power may well
alienate others in the workplace).
– They need plenty of self-control to curb their
desire for power when it threatens to interfere
with effective organizational or interpersonal
relationships.
Equity Theory
A process theory about work motivation that
focuses on workers’ perceptions of the
fairness of their work outcomes and inputs.
Equity Theory
According to equity theory, what is
important to motivation is the way a
worker perceives his or her outcome / input
ratio compared to that of another person.
Outcome / input ratio
Outcome / input ratio is the relationship between
what a worker gets from a job and what the worker
contributes to the job.
Two Basic Types of Inequity
Overpayment inequity exists when a person
perceives that their outcome / input ratio is
greater than the ratio of the referent.
Underpayment inequity exists when a
person perceives that their outcome /
input ratio is less than the ratio of the
referent.
Four referent comparisons an employee
can use:
• Self-inside
• Self-outside
• Other-inside
• Other-outside
Employee perceive an inequity
they can be predicted
•
•
•
•
•
•
Change their inputs
Change their outcomes
Distort perceptions of self
Distort perceptions of others
Choose a different referent
Leave the field
Ways to Restore Equity
• Workers change their
inputs or outcomes.
• Workers change the
referents’ inputs or
outcomes.
• Workers change their
perceptions of inputs
and outcomes.
• Workers change the
referent.
• Workers leave the job
or organization or force
the referent to leave.
Expectancy Theory
• A process theory about work motivation that
focuses on how workers make choices among
alternative behaviors and levels of effort.
• The strength of a tendency to act in a certain
way depends on the strength of an
expectation that the act will be followed by a
given outcome and on the attractiveness of
that outcome to the individual.
Theory focuses on three relationships
1. Effort-performance relationship
2. Performance-reward relationship
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship
Expectancy Theory
Individual
effort
Individual
Organizational
performance
rewards
1. Effort-performance relationship
2. Performance-reward relationship
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship
Personal
goals
Expectancy Theory - Key Terms
• Valence: the desirability of an outcome to an
individual.
• Instrumentality: a perception about the extent to
which performance of one or more behaviors will
lead to the attainment of a particular outcome.
• Expectancy: a perception about the extent to which
effort will result in a certain level of performance.
Goal-Setting Theory
• Goal-Setting Theory suggests that an
individual’s conscious goals and
intentions are the primary
determinants of behavior.
• Developed by Locke and Latham.
Components of Goal-Setting Theory
• Goal Difficulty
– The extent to which a goal is challenging and requires
effort.
– Difficult, yet realistic, goals are typically the most
effective.
• Goal Specificity
– The clarity and precision of a goal.
– Specific, rather than vague, goals are typically the most
effective.
Components of Goal-Setting Theory
• Goal Acceptance
– The extent to which a person accepts a goal as his
or her own.
• Goal Commitment
– The extent to which a person is personally
interested in reaching a goal.
Reinforcement Theory
• In Reinforcement Theory we have a behavioristic
approach which argues that reinforcement
conditions behavior.
• Behavior is being environmentally caused.
• Theory ignores the inner state of individual and
constraint solely on what happens to a person when
he or she takes some action.
Theory X Theory Y
• Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human
beings: one basically negative, labeled Theory X, and the
other basically positive, labeled Theory Y.
• After viewing the way in which managers dealt with
employees, McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the
nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of
assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her
behavior toward subordinates according to these
assumptions.
Theory X, the four assumptions held by managers:
1. Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will
attempt to avoid it.
2. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or
threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
3. Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction
whenever possible.
4. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with
work and will display little ambition.
McGregor listed four positive assumptions, which
he called Theory Y:
1. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.
2. People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are
committed to the objectives.
3. The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility.
4. The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed
throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province
of those in management positions.