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Social Problems
Sexual Orientation and the Social
Problem of Homophobia
What is Homosexuality?
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“an attraction, physical and emotional, to people of
the same sex.” (Tepperman et al.)
“a preference for emotional-sexual relationships with
individuals of the “same” sex (homosexuality), the
“opposite” sex (heterosexuality), or both
(bisexuality)” (Kendal et al.)
Can be behaviour or identity
Homosexual and gay: males who prefer “same” sex
Lesbian: females who prefer “same” sex
Straight: heterosexuals who prefer “opposite” sex
Criteria for Classifying Individuals
as Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual
1.
2.
3.
Sexual attraction to persons of one’s own
gender
Sexual involvement with one or more
persons of one’s own gender
Self-identification as a gay man, lesbian, or
bisexual
Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation
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Gender identity refers to one’s sense of
maleness or femaleness in society
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Formed by age three
Important aspect of one’s self concept
Emerges as a significant aspect of identity during
adolescence
Sexual identity refers to a sense of one’s
attractiveness to others comfort with one’s body
and sexual attitudes and feelings
Sexual orientation - level of attraction to the
same, opposite, or both sexes
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Homosexual orientation
Heterosexual orientation
Bisexual orientation
In the recent past…
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Homosexuality has often been regarded as:
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A sin
A function of some form of physical
and mental pathology
Recent Past (cont.)
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In Aug. 6, 1885, the British Parliament voted to
make homosexual acts a criminal offense.
Many other Western countries soon followed suit
In 1930s Germany, Hitler launched campaign
against not just Jews but also other groups…
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Thousands of homosexuals sent to concentration camps.
Gay men identified with pink triangles and lesbians with
black triangles.
More Recently…
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Dr. Alfred Kinsey’ s research (1953) instrumental in
the normalization of homosexual behavior
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Sexual feelings and behaviors towards
the same sex were not abnormal
 Researchers concluded that
homosexuals cannot be distinguished
from non-homosexuals in psychological
terms
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Thomas Szasz – Psychiatrists replaced the church
in labeling homosexuality an illness
The Numbers:
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Dr. Alfred Kinsey (1953) showed that sexuality a
continuum:
Homosexuality--------------heterosexuality
Kinsey estimated the homosexual population at 10
percent of the population
Current studies indicate it is around 1 to 4% of the
population
2003 Canadian Community Health Survey found only
1% but according to gay community in Canada more
likely 5 – 10%
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(Alphonso, Globe and Mail, June 16, 2004,
http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/ArticleNews/TPStory/LAC/20040616/GAY1
6/TPNational/Canada)
Our Changing Attitudes…
(CBC Digital Archives)
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Go to the CBC Digital Archives at
http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/rights_freedo
ms/topics/599/ to see the changes in
Canadian attitudes and understanding by
watching the 1959 clip “A Psychiatric
Problem” and the 1978 clip “The Rocky
Road to Gay Rights”
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More recently…
Environics Research Group
2001 Poll of Canadian Attitudes
Toward Homosexuality
Date “Approval”
1996
1999
2001
22%
34
44
“Disapproval” No opinion
48%
34
37
27%
29
16
2004 Gallup Poll on Same Sex
Marriage http://www.gallup.com/poll/13561/Gay-Rights-US-More(
Conservative-Than-Britain-Canada.aspx)
The Gay Lifestyle: Interpersonal
Relationships and Domestic
Arrangements
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Studies point to similarities and differences between
homosexual and heterosexual relationships
Interestingly, domestic arrangements often mirror
those of heterosexual couples
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Influence of patriarchal culture?
Long-lived partnerships between gay men are not
uncommon but they are not typical
Lesbians tend to attach a high priority to domestic
partnerships
The Homosexual Subculture
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Homosexual subculture consists of the institutions
within the gay community
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Gay magazines and periodicals
Bars, Movie theaters
Parks
Businesses
Social clubs and organizations
A major function of the subculture is that it provides
a way for its members to understand and accept
their orientation
Homosexual organizations aid in the pursuit of
political rights
Who “Becomes” a Homosexual?
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No direct link between genetic traits and
homosexuality but growing scientific literature
provides evidence for biological basis
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Large portion of homosexuals attribute their
orientation to early childhood or support a
biological explanation
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Social scientists largely attribute
homosexuality to one’s social environment
Believe sexual behavior is learned
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Labelling Theory Explanation:
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Homosexuality as a process of labeling that
involves four stages
1. Sensitization
2. Dissociation and significance
3. Coming out
4. Commitment
Lack of Scientific and Public
Consensus
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Debate: Does homosexuality have genetic or
social origins?
Sexualities are shaped differently across time
and location
Real issue is about social justice and not
about the origins of homosexuality
Inequality Based on Sexual
Orientation Exists Because of:
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Homophobia: the irrational and excessive fear of
intolerance of homosexuals and homosexuality
Biphobia: fear and intolerance of bisexuals and
bisexual lifestyles
Transphobia: fear of transsexual and
transgendered people
Heterosexism: belief that heterosexuality is the only
normal, natural, and moral mode of relating, and
hence is superior to homosexuality or bisexuality. In
our culture, heterosexuality is the norm and many
people are at least somewhat “heterosexist.”
The Social Problem of
Homophobia
Variance from the societal norm of
heterosexuality is not a social
problem
 The societal response, whether it is in
the form of prejudice, discrimination
(institutional or individual) or
homophobia is the social problem.
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Sources of Homophobia
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Homophobia tends to be associated with
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Male gender identity
 Distorted notions of masculinity
 Study by Adams (U. of Georgia) showed
that individuals who score in the
homophobic range on a "Homophobia
Scale" demonstrate significant sexual
arousal to male homosexual erotic
stimuli.
Generally, research shows that
homophobic individuals….
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1. are less likely to have had personal contact with
lesbians or gays;
2. are less likely to report having engaged in
homosexual behaviors, or to identify themselves as
lesbian or gay;
3. are more likely to perceive their peers as
manifesting negative attitudes, especially if the
respondents are males;
4. are more likely to have resided in areas where
negative attitudes are the norm (e.g., the midwestern
and southern United States, the Canadian prairies,
and in rural areas or small towns), especially during
adolescence;
5. are likely to be older and less well educated;
Research shows… (cont.)
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6. are more likely to be religious, to attend
church frequently, and to subscribe to a
conservative religious ideology;
7. are more likely to express traditional,
restrictive attitudes about sex roles;
8. are less permissive sexually or manifest more
guilt or negativity about sexuality, although some
researchers have not observed this pattern and
others have reported a substantially reduced
correlation with the effects of sex-role attitudes
partialled out;
9. are more likely to manifest high levels of
authoritarianism and related personality
characteristics.
(source:http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/assault/roots/overview.html)
U.S. Studies on Effects of
Homophobia show:
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Students who describe themselves as lesbian, gay,
bisexual or transgendered are five times more likely
to miss school because of feeling unsafe and 28%
are forced to drop out.
The vast majority of victims of anti-lesbian/gay
violence - possibly more than 80% - never report the
incident, often due to fear of being "outed."
85% of teachers oppose integrating lesbian, gay
and bisexual themes in their curricula.
Due to sexual orientation discrimination, lesbians
earn up to 14% less than their heterosexual female
peers with similar jobs, education, age and
residence, according to a 1995 study by the
University of Maryland.
U.S. Studies (cont.)
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42% of homeless youth identify as lesbian, gay or
bisexual.
75% of people committing hate crimes are under
age 30 - one in three are under 18 - and some of the
most pervasive anti-gay violence occurs in schools.
Lesbian, gay and bisexual youth are at a four times
higher risk for suicide than their straight peers.
A 1994 survey of 191 employers revealed that 18%
would fire, 27% would refuse to hire and 26% would
refuse to promote a person they perceived to be
lesbian, gay or bisexual.
Source: http://www.now.org/issues/lgbi/stats.html
Canadian Studies:
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Lack of research in Canada, especially on
homosexual youth.
According to Egale Canada: “Teens are
among those most vulnerable to homophobic
bullying” but also notes that: “Currently, there
are no Canadian statistics except for a small
scale study (77 youth) done in 1999 in B.C. by
the McCreary Centre Society.” (www.egale.ca)
Canadian (cont.)
(table below from http://www.lgbthealth.net/downloads/research/Human_Impact_of_Homophobia.pdf)
Health Effects due to Homophobia:
Report to Gay and Lesbian Health
Services Sakatoon SK
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Other Canadian research shows that an “increased
incidence of health and social problems found in the
GLB population are related to the stigma and shame
associated with living in a homophobic society”
(Ryan, Brotman & Rowe, 2000)
Evidence of higher rates of depression
Higher unemployment
More likely to be victims of physical violence and
anti-homosexual homicide
(source: The Human Impact of Homophobia, 2003 by Christopher Banks
http://www.lgbthealth.net/downloads/research/Human_Impact_of_Homophobia.pdf)
The Status of Homophobic
Discrimination in Canada and the U.S.:
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Typically, three most common types of
discrimination and oppression are:
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Ideological
Legal
Occupational
Ideological Discrimination
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Enacted through homophobia
When people believe gays are immoral:
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They belittle their lifestyle
Tell jokes
Deny housing, jobs, memberships
Engage in hostile or violent acts
Most Judeo-Christian religions and Islam
generally find homosexuality to be a sin
although a few denominations tend to be more
accepting of homosexuality (i.e. the United
Church allowed ordination of gays in 1988)
Ideological (cont.)
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Buddhism only major religion that does not
regard homosexuality as a sin
Medicine and psychiatry considered
homosexuality an illness in the past
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i.e. in U.S., it was not until 1973 when the American
Psychiatric Association stopped classifying it as
such.
Stereotypical beliefs equate sexual orientation
and other practices eg. Pedophilia is nearly
always committed by heterosexual men
Legal Discrimination:
Legal and Civil Status in Canada
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In Canada, the government of the late P.M.
Trudeau decriminalized homosexuality in 1969
In 2005, the House of Commons voted 158 to 133
to adopt controversial legislation to make Canada
only the third country in the world to legalize
same-sex marriage (>10 000 marriage licences
by June 2006)
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On Monday (May 26, 2008) the Huron Diocese of the
Anglican Church in London, ON voted “in favour (~72%
ministers and laypersons) of conditionally allowing
ministers to bless married, same-sex couples”
(http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20080526.wanglicangay052
6/BNStory/National/)
Canada (cont.)
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Same-sex couples can be parents in Canada
In 2007, same-sex couples married outside of
Canada allowed to immigrate to Canada as
married couples
(http://www.canada.com/topics/news/national/story.html?id=b647b9daa58d-4d56-bdd1-368ed2e8aace&k=84098)
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Time line in Canada:
http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/samesex
rights/timeline_canada.html
In the U.S….
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But…in the U.S., sodomy still a crime in some states
and same sex marriage is illegal (through a
constitutional amendment endorsed by G. W. Bush
in 2003).
Most states also have laws banning same sex
marriage with exception of Massachusetts and
California (will vote Nov. 2008)
For more, see
http://marriage.about.com/cs/marriagelicenses/a/samesexcomp.htm
Around the World…
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World Timeline:
http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/samesexrights/t
imeline_world.html
Global climate, especially in Western World, is
changing
Denmark first country to legally recognize same-sex
marriage in 1989
Follwoed by Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, France
and Iceland (2001)
Israel, South Africa, Spain, and New Zealand have
now legalized same-sex marriage
Occupational Oppression
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In 1995 the Canadian Human Rights Act was
amended to prohibit discrimination on basis
of sexual orientation
It is now illegal in Canada to refuse
employment on basis of sexual orientation
Also, same sex benefits are now law
But still many issues exist…
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For an interesting explanation of some of the
problems, read the C.A.W. brochure (see below)
Occupational (cont.)
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“Gays, lesbians, bisexuals and trans people aren't
asking for special rights. We are asking for an end to
discrimination. It’s only in the last five years that
employers in Canada can no longer legally pay lesbian
and gay employees less than their heterosexual
counterparts (prior to this, unless it was specifically
negotiated for same-sex couples, only heterosexual
employees had benefit and pension coverage for their
partners). Trans people certainly aren’t asking for
anything ‘special’ either – a safe place to work, a safe
washroom / changeroom (just like everyone else has),
the right to be called by their name, the right to
accommodation (that we all have), and the right to be
referred to by their chosen gender.” (from 2006 C.A.W.
booklet at http://www.caw.ca/whatwedo/pride/pdf/glbt_booklet.pdf)
Other Forms of Discrimination
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Housing can be a problem, so there is a
tendency to inhabit specific geographic
spaces in major cities
Medical care: many professionals have
been prejudiced, uninformed, or
provided inadequate information
Hate crimes and hate literature
motivated by victim’s sexual orientation
See “In Defense of Homophobia” at:
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http://wuphys.wustl.edu/~katz/
Overall…
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Homophobia (including biphobia,
transphobia, and heterosexism) seems to be
more pronounced in the U.S. than in Canada
The result of legislation (Charter of Rights,
recognition of the legality of gay marriage,
etc. seem to have had a positive effect on
Canadian attitudes.
Recent Canadian research does show an
increase in tolerance toward homosexuals
Tolerance also a function of political
movements by gays and on behalf of gays
What are Canadian Attitudes?
Attitudes (cont.)
Sociological Perspectives
Functionalist
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Focus is on the relationship between social
structure and sexual orientation, e.g., how norms
and laws preserve social structures like the
family, and how sexual orientation is said to
threaten it
Societies punish homosexual conduct because it
violates norms and undermines stability
But marriage is also understood as the decision
of two people to live together in a partnership
Perspectives (cont.)
Conflict
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Focus is on tensions in society and differences
in interests and power among opposing groups
People with power have own attitudes enforced
Norms pertaining to compulsory hetero-sexuality
reflect beliefs of dominant group
But adverse decisions by courts led to increased
political activism by gay and lesbian rights
groups
Perspectives (cont.)
Conflict (cont.)
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Openly gay and lesbian people are found in all
occupations and publicly acknowledge their
orientation
But some wealthy and powerful people are gay
and lesbian and do little to reduce discrimination
Perspectives (cont.)
Interactionist
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Views sexual behaviour as learned behaviour
Examines process by which individuals come to
identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual or straight
Acquiring status of heterosexual is easier
because it is the established norm
Sexual orientation is a master status, the most
significant status a person possesses, for many
homosexuals. It is especially significant when
linked to other subordinate group statuses
Perspectives (cont.)
Interactionist (cont.)
Stages in accepting a lesbian, gay, or bisexual
identity:
 Identity Confusion—feeling different from others
 Seeking out others who are openly lesbian or
gay and experimenting
 Integrating self concept and accepting a label by
pursuing a way of life that conforms to the label
Perspectives (cont.)
Feminist
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Focus, originally, was on group (men) in power
imposing its agenda
Norms and values about heterosexuality work to
promote interests of men
More recently a shift has occurred from critiques
of patriarchy to a more inclusive politics that
values all diversity and encourages acceptance
of all people
Perspectives (cont.)
Queer Theory
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Rejects notions of “normal” or “natural” in favour
of social construction so any and every form of
sexuality is acceptable
The term “Queer” is reclaimed as a means of
self-identification (“ form of tertiary deviance”)
Reducing Inequalities…
Functionalist Perspective:
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With the legalization of marriage some are saying
that homosexuality can be dysfunctional for society
Conflict Perspective:
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Homophobia is like racism and sexism
Repeal laws based on discrimination and pass laws that
ban discrimination
People must continue activism to gain equal rights
Interactionist Perspective:
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Society should be more tolerant.
Legal and social barriers that prevent full
participation in society should be removed
Reducing Inequalities Based on
Sexual Orientation:
Feminist Perspective:
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Promote sexual pluralism all people need to support
each other to combat oppression
Everyone can then fight against the variety of
oppressions
Queer Theory:
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Refuse to define self or others
Interesting websites…
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History of Legislation:
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Link to Resources:
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http://www.canada.com/national/story.html?id=41
a2cfbb-5124-4527-8627-3af8aa1919de
http://www.pflagcanada.ca/en/linkse.asp?audience=gay
PBS Report:
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http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/as
sault/