Transcript General Biology Lab Exam1 Review

General Biology Lab Exam1
Review
Covering Labs 1-5
10-15 questions from each lab
Scientific Method
• There is a systematic approach to science, a
series of steps that must be followed by all
scientists known as the scientific method.
• The basic steps are:
• 1. Observation of a problem
• 2. hypothesis formation- possible explanations
• 3. Experimentation- testing the question
repeatedly
• 4. Conclusion
Lab 1
•
Null Hypothesis- is the hypothesis of “no difference”, it is
explaining what is occurring in a properly designed
controlled experiment where nothing has been
manipulated so the conditions remain constant.
• Ex. There would be no difference or no statistically
significant difference in the number of males and
females being born in the U.S. this year.
• Since hypotheses are always written in pairs and in
formal sentences or statements, we must also have an
Alternate hypothesis to explain the experimental groups
where variables are being applied and manipulated.
• Ex. Alternate hyp.: There is a difference in the number of
males and females born in the U.S. this year.
• Control group- the group that is left
unchanged or un-manipulated
• Variable group- the experimental groups in
which something (a factor) is manipulated
and changed that might influence the
outcome of the experiment
• Ph- the measure of acidic and alkaline
(how basic) a solution is.
• Ph scale ranges from 0-14, with 7 being
neutral.
Chi-Square Statistic
Observed
Expected
O
E
O-E
O-E2
O-E2/E
Section 1_____________________________________________
Section 2_____________________________________________
Section 3_____________________________________________
Section 4_____________________________________________
* Total
______
Χ2 = _______
Add up the last column
* You must calculate a grand total of the observed values to find your
Expected. Note E- expected is the average since the null hypothesis
stated that all the numbers would be relatively the same.
Lab #1 Scientific Method
• To determine if you are going to accept or reject your
Null hypothesis you must read a Chi-Square table to
determine if the differences you found between your
observed values and your expected values are far
enough apart to be considered different and not the
same or if they are within the accepted range to be
considered not significantly different.
• Remember, your Expected values in the second column
is the average so how far did the Observed values differ
from the Expected? The larger the difference, the higher
your chance of rejecting the null hypothesis and
accepting the alternate hypothesis stating that there was
a difference and that one of the variables had an effect.
•
•
•
Next, you must locate the column or probability level (p value) on the ChiSquare table that you are going to use that will correspond to the row you
just found using the df. Most scientists use P=0.05 with an acceptable rate
of error being 5% or less.
If you then read the table using the appropriate df value and p value you will
find the Critical Value or the C.V. which you can then use to compare with
your calculated Chi-Square value.
To use the Chi-Square table you must first locate the the row across the
table that you are going to use. You do so by finding the degrees of
freedom or df. This is always one less than the number of groups or
categories tested. Df=n-1
Lab #1 Scientific Method
Chi Square Table
Lab #2 Microscopes
•
Know the labeled parts of the
microscope and their basic functions. (All
bold print terms in Lab #2)
•
Microscope
Diagram
Lab #2
• Be able to calculate the total
magnification if asked for any of the
objectives.
• It is the ocular/eyepiece magnification of
10x multiplied by the individual
lens/objective magnifications 4x, 10x, 40x,
100x.
Lab #2
• Be able to calculate the size of a given
microscope’s field of view- is the amount
of the object that you see
• Ex. How many lines do you see in this
space?
I I I I 4 lines or 4mm
•
• How many cells could fit in the space
occupied by those four lines? About 3
cells?
Lab #2
• Now that you have measured the field of view. Review
page 6 of Lab #2 for the measurements you found in
class.
• 4x scanning 4-5 mm
• 10x low power 1.5-2 mm
• 40x high power 0.5 mm
• Now, given these field of view diameters be able to
calculate the size of a cell.
• Use the formula diameter field of view
•
number of cells
• So if using low power 10x to view the 3 cells we saw
earlier how would you calculate their size? 2mm/3 cells=
• What happens to the field of view (the amount of the
object seen) as you increase in magnification? Yes, the
object gets larger as magnification increases but the field
of view or the actual overall amount of the object you see
actually gets smaller. In class, you could not make out
the letter “e” as you went up in magnification.
• What does the term parfocal mean? It means once you
get an object in focus on scanning and/or low power it
remains pretty much in focus as you move up to the
higher powers with very little adjustment. Even focus at
all magnifications.
Lab #2
• State the two types of tissue we looked at.
• Human cheek epithelium- the tissue that
lines the body cavity, inside the mouth,
nose, esophagus, stomach, intestines.
• Onion and leaf epidermis- the tissue found
covering the outer surface of plant leaves.
Your epidermis is your skin.
Lab #2
• Be able to list some differences between plant
and animal cells.
• Animals- rounder, more irregular shaped,
surrounded only by a thin plasma/cell
membrane, often scattered in arrangement
• Plants- more rectangular, elongated, more
regular often appearing in rows and columns.
Having a thicker outer boundary composed of
Both a cell wall and a plasma/cell membrane.
Lab #2
• Human Cheek epithelium- Be able to
recognize the cells and their structuresthe nucleus, cell/plasma membrane, and
cytoplasm.
Lab #2
• Be able to recognize a typical plant cell, such as
Anacharis. (Elodea).
• Be able to identify the cell wall,(Note: the cell/plasma
membrane is located to the inside of the cell wall) the
chloroplasts, cytoplasm, and central vacuole
Lab #2
• Recognize the onion
epidermis and the cell
structures: nucleus,
cytoplasm, cell wall.
Lab #2
• What are some organelles that plants
have that animal cells do not?
Chloroplasts and central vacuoles
• Animal/Cheek Cells also lack a cell wall.
• Plant cells have BOTH a cell wall and a
cell/plasma membrane
Lab #3 Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi
• Kingdom Monera was subdivided into two new
kingdoms: Kingdom Archebacteria and K. Eubacteria.
• What is the major differences between prokaryotic cells
and eukaryotic cells? Prokaryotes lack a true membrane
bound nucleus and membrane bound organelles.
• Bacteria are prokaryotes.
• What are some ways to identify bacteria?
• -shape- cocci (round), bacilli (rod), spirilla (spiral)
• Arrangement – staph (cluster), strep (chain)
Lab #3 Eubacteria
• Staphylococci
Lab #3 Eubacteria
• Streptobacillus
Arrangement
•
Lab #3 Eubacteria
• Spirilla
Lab # 3 Protista
• Unicellular- single celled
• Eukaryotes- have true nucleus and
membrane bound organelles
• Two types: heterotrophic(eat others),
animal-like members are called the
protozoans- the first animals
• Plant-like members of this Kingdom that
are autotrophic (make their own food by
photosynthesis) are algae.
Lab # 3 Protista
• Amoeba (notice you
must either write this
genus name in italics
or capitalize and
underline it)
Lab # 3 Protista
• Paramecium- moves
using its cillia
Lab # 3 Protista
• Euglena- swims using
its flagella.
• Has both plant and
animal-like
characteristics since it
is both heterotrophic
(eats) and autotrophic
(makes its own food)
using chloroplasts to
photosynthesize
Lab #3 Protista
• Spirogyra- algae
Lab # 3 Fungi
• Kindgom Fungimostly multicellular
eukaryotesreproduce both
sexually and
asexually by spores
• A unicellular example
is Saccharomyces ,
commonly known as
Yeast- Note the
reproductive budding.
Lab # 3 Fungi
• Penicillium- is the
genus of the mold
that produces the
antibiotic medicine
Penicillin.
• Note the hyphal
filaments and the
round spores.
Lab #3 Fungi
• Common mushrooms
Lab #3 Fungi
• Morels- sponge
mushroom
Lab #3 Fungi
• Mushrooms
• Note: cap with gills
underneath that
produce the spores,
all held up by the
stalk.
Lab #3 Fungi
• Shelf or Bracket
Fungi- grow off of
dead and decaying
matter like old wood.
They are
decomposers helping
to break down and
recycle nutrients back
into the soil.
Lab #3 Lichens
• Lichens are a symbiotic organism made of
two distinct organisms living and sharing
together. They are made of an algae and a
fungus. The algae can photosynthesize
and make food for the fungus. While, the
fungus can provide a home and nutrients
and water for the algae in return.
• They are often an indicator of air pollution
and will not grow in polluted environments.
Lab #4 Plant Kingdom
• Who are the proposed ancestors to the
Plants? The algae (Kingdom Protista)
• There are 4 major groups of plants we
looked at in this lab. You must know
examples, structures and characteristics
for each group.
Lab #4 Plant Kingdom
• Bryophytes- mossescapsule containing
spores, leafy base
and stalk.
Lab #4 Plant Kingdom
• Bryophytes- lack vascular tissue so they are
small, low growing plants that live in moist
environments.
• They require water for reproduction since they
have motile sperm with flagella that swim over to
the female structure for fertilization.
• They produce spores for reproduction (a
primitive trait shared with the Fungi and
Eubacteria)
Lab #3 Plant Kingdom
• Bryophytes- Liverworts
• Female gametophore
(archegonium)- produces
the eggs
• Male gametophore(antheridium) produces
the sperm
• Also has an asexual
means of reproduction
using gemmae cups that
appear on the surface of
the ribbon-like body or
thallus
Liverwort male and female
Liverwort with gemmae cups
Lab #4 Plant Kingdom
• Ferns- have vascular
tissue:
xylemtransports water and
phloem- transports
food/sugar
• Still require water for
reproduction
• Still produce the more
primitive spores
inside the sori
Lab #4 Plant Kingdom
• Gymnospermsconifers – cone
bearing evergreen
plants that produce
naked, uncovered,
unprotected seeds
• Pines, firs, cedars,
junipers, etc…
Gymnosperms
• Male cones- produce
pollen which contains
the sperm that will be
carried by the wind to
the female cones
Gymnosperms
• Female cones after
fertilization by the
male pollen/sperm
develop the seeds or
eggs. The cones
mature and open up
releasing the seeds to
be dispersed by the
wind.
Angiosperms
• Angiosperms are the
flowering plants- they
produce covered or
protected seeds
inside of a fruit.
Angiopserms
• Male Flower parts
• Female flower parts
Angiosperms
• Know the terms: radial (Like a wheel or pie- cutting into
more than one equal piece) vs. bilateral symmetryhaving only two equal sides when cut down the middle
like mirror images.
• Incomplete vs. Complete flower- having all flower parts
or missing one or more.
• Composite flower- made of more than one type of flower.
Ex. Sunflowers, Daisy Mum- with ray and disk flowers
• Inflorescence- more than one flower grouped at the end
of a single flower stem.
• Fruit- a mature ripened ovary containing fertilized seeds.
• Pollination- the transfer of the male pollen (sperm) to the
female stigma for fertilization.
Lab #4 Plant Kingdom
• Monocot leavesflower parts in 3’s and
6’s, parallel leaf veins
Lab #4 Plant Kingdom
• Dicot leaf- flower
parts in 4’s and 5’s,
netted or branched
leaf veins
Lab #5 Animal Kingdom
• Who are the proposed ancestors to the animals?
The protozoa (the unicellular animal-like
members of the kingdom Protista)
• What is a phylogenetic tree? It is a tree based
on shared characteristics or traits that groups of
animals have in common that is supposed to
show evolutionary relationships among and
between the different groups.
Lab #5 Animal Kingdom
• Assymmetry- is the
lack of a true body
shape Ex. Sponges in
the Phylum Proifera.
• Bilateral and Radial
Symmetry
Lab #5 Animal Kingdom
• Protostomes- a type
of embryonic
development where
the mouth is the first
opening to form in the
developing embryo
and the second
opening becomes the
anus.
Lab #5 Animal Kingdom
• Deuterostomes- the
second opening to
form during
embyronic
development is the
mouth and the first
opening to appear
becomes the anus.
Lab #5 Animal Kingdom
Lab #5 Animal Kingdom
• Know the general characteristics for each
of the nine phyla: Porifera, Cnidaria,
Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Mollusca,
Annelida, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, and
Chordata.
• Know representative examples for each
phyla.
Porifera
• Sponges- asymmetrical
filter feeders, mostly
marine, sessile (nonmoving), no mouth, no
tissues, no digestive
system. They trap and
capture their food
particles out of the water
as it passes through their
bodies using intracellular
digestion.
Cnidaria
• Jellyfish and coral
• Hydra-polyp
• Medusa-jellyfish
Platyhelminthes
• Platy- “flaty”- flat
bodies worms often
with a distinctive head
region (cephalization)
• Some free living like
the Planaria
• Others parasitic like
flukes and tapeworms
Nematoda
• Roundworms, smooth
cylindrical body that
narrows and tapers to
pointy ends, often
pink and fleshy
colored, many
parasitic species
(hookworms,
pinworms), some live
in the soil.
Mollusca
• Snails are the
gastropods, clams,
oysters, mussels are
the bivalves having
two shells, and the
cephalopods are the
squid and ocutpus
• Many have a
muscular foot, and
rasping, file-like
tongue called a radula
Annelida
• Segmented wormsearthworm,
sandworm, marine
worm, leeches
Arthropoda
• Jointed feet and segmented bodies
• Hard exoskeleton of chitin
• Know the classes: Class Crustacea- crabs, shrimp,
lobster, crayfish.
• Class Arachnida- spiders, scorpions, ticks- have 8 legs
• Class Insecta- 6 legs- ants, butterflies, bees, wasps,
beetles, crickets, grasshoppers
• Class Chilopoda- centipedes- 1 pair of legs per body
segment- have venom glands, biting mouthparts, and
often warning coloration on legs (bright yellow, oragne,
or red)
• Class Diplopoda- millipedes- 2 pairs of legs per body
segment- herbivores- eat plant material
Arthropoda
Arthropoda
Arthorpoda
• Class Crustacea
Echinodermata
• This phylum contains the spiny or rough skinned
animals like the sea star, sea urchin, sand dollar,
sea cucumber.
• They have radial symmetry as adults but as
larvae they are bilateral.
• They are Deuterostomes like the next Phylum
Chordata and so they develop embryonically
and structurally in a common pattern
• They have body parts in five repeating segments
called penteramous- often these body parts can
be regenerated when lost.
Echinodermata
Echinodermata
Chordata
• Phylum Chordata
•
Subphylum Vertebrata
•
Classes: Chondricthyes- cartilage fish- sharks, manta rays, devil
rays, skates
•
Class Osteicthyes- Bony Fish
•
Class Amphibia- frogs, toads, salamanders, newts,
mudpuppies- smooth often moist or mucous coated skin, reproduce
in or near the water
•
Class Reptilia- turtles, snakes, lizards, crocodiles, alligators,
skinks, dinosaurs- rough, dry, scaly skin, more terrestrial
•
Class Aves- birds
•
Class Mammalia- mammals- have hair and give birth to live
young fed and nourished by mammary glands
Chordata
Echinodermata