Transcript PhD presentaion - University of Nairobi

Indigenous knowledge and the
management of marine
resources in the KisauniMatsangoni area of north
coastal Kenya
Denis Khamati Shilabukha
A Thesis Submitted to the Institute of Anthropology, Gender And African
Studies in Fulfillment of The Requirements for Award of the Degree Of
Doctor Of Philosophy In Anthropology Of The University Of Nairobi
1.1 Introduction
• The relationship between society/culture and nature/biodiversity lies
behind much of the discussions on the relevance of indigenous
knowledge in the contemporary world. One side of this debate
presupposes that there is distinction between human society and
nature. This distinction has been used in the past by anthropologists
and others to mark out the gap between human and non-human
worlds, domains and spheres.
Introduction cont..
• However, this has led to the (often) rapacious perception that nature
is alien and, therefore, inimical to human progress and economic
advancement.
• This can be attributed to the Victorian era when Western interests
centred on the conquest, study and civilization of the “primitive and
other” peoples (Willis, 1990:6).
Introduction cont..
• On the other side of the debate, the thinking is that people’s concept
of nature should be dialectical and holistic as opposed to dualistic.
This philosophy is in conformity with many an indigenous people’s
view of nature (Willis, 1990:4).
• This is the basis of indigenous people and indigenous knowledge.
• The Giriama people, among whom this study was done, fit the
description of indigenous people. This is especially so if we consider
their knowledge and relationship with the marine resources.
Problem statement
• Biodiversity, the totality of genetic resources, varieties and
ecosystems, is the very foundation of life on earth. Different regions
of the world are endowed with different species of plant, animal and
micro-organism species.
• The spatial distribution of these species is dependent upon climatic
and topographic factors. It is imperative to note that most of the “epicentres of genetic diversity” are located in the South.
• These regions are, however, threatened with the loss of important
bio-diversity and genetic resources due to a number of factors
(Zavarin, 1991:252). One of these factors is the focus on the so-called
scientific methods of managing biodiversity. The assumption has been
that these methods are superior to the time-tested indigenous
knowledge systems.
Problem cont…
• However, the reality on the ground depicts a completely different
picture. This study was concerned with the uncertain status of the
indigenous knowledge that reflects many generations of experience
and problem-solving by thousands of ethnic groups across the globe.
• Very little of this knowledge has been recorded, yet it represents an
immensely valuable data base that provides humankind with insights
into how numerous communities have interacted with their changing
environment including its floral and faunal resources. Indigenous
knowledge, particularly in the African context, has long been ignored
and maligned by outsiders.
Research questions
• This study was, therefore, designed to find answers to the following
questions:
• What is the nature and significance of Giriama indigenous knowledge
in the management of marine resources in the research site?
• What role can the Giriama culture play in evolving a conservation
ethic appropriate for sustainable marine resource utilisation?
• What is the role of the Giriama nomenclature in the management and
use marine resources?
Objectives of the study
General objective
• To explore the role of the Giriama community and its knowledge in
the management of its the marine resources.
Specific Objectives
• Analyse the nature and significance of Giriama indigenous knowledge
in the management of marine resources in the Kisauni - Matsangoni
area.
• Identify and discuss the Giriama nomenclature in the marine
resources and its implications for management and use.
• Determine the role Giriama culture can play in evolving a
conservation ethic appropriate for sustainable marine resource
utilisation.
Assumptions of the study
• The Giriama indigenous knowledge is significant for the management
of marine resources in the study site.
• The Giriama nomenclature for the marine resources influences the
management and use of marine resources.
• Giriama culture can play a significant role in evolving a conservation
ethic appropriate for sustainable marine resource utilisation.
Rationale of the study
• Indigenous knowledge, particularly in the African context, has long
been ignored and maligned by outsiders. Yet there is much we can
learn from how communities such as the Giriama have, who
traditionally used and protected their marine resources, and this
knowledge may help the rest of the world find appropriate solutions
for reaching outcomes that benefit both the cultural and biological
diversity that ensure the resilience and richness of our lives.
• Very little of this knowledge has been recorded, yet it represents an
immensely valuable data base that provides humankind with insights
into how numerous communities have interacted with their changing
environment including its floral and faunal resources
Rationale Cont..
• In some areas, attempts have been made to use indigenous strategies to
complement contemporary management approaches. This is not enough and,
therefore, this study’s findings, if adopted by policy makers, provide such a
scenario where the Giriama people in particular, and many other indigenous
people, would have an opportunity to contribute their traditional ecological
knowledge that will be of direct benefit to scientists and non-scientists alike in
the protection of marine resources such as reefs, mangrove, fisheries and corals.
• Natural sciences are vital for the understanding of the functioning of ecosystems
such as biological organisms, food chains and energy levels. However, this kind of
study provided an anthropological approach which facilitated the analysis of
social governance structures, an essential platform from which we can
comprehend patterns of human behaviours that influence ecological damages
(pressure variables) and to finding effective solutions such as community
participation, communication channels and regulatory mechanisms in the course
of management and utilisation
1.6 Scope of the study
• This study was carried out in the Kisauni-Matsangoni area of north
coastal Kenya. It focused on the role of local ecological knowledge in
helping the community develop a conservation ethic and resource
management suitable for marine resources.
• It also examined the issues of environmental impact assessment for
purposes of coordinating the responsiveness of local development
projects to environmental and cultural concerns.
• The study was guided by the theory of neo-structuralism.
Limitations of the study
• This study faced a number of methodological limitations. One of them
was translation of concepts. Due to language barriers it was
sometimes difficult for effective communication to take place.
• Another limitation had to do with cultural triage. This is a situation
where an indigenous group is forced to rank cultural and natural
resources that could be impacted by proposed development projects.
• Another methodological limitation had to do with decontextualisation
and distillation of indigenous knowledge.
Theoretical framework
• This study was guided by the theory of neo-structuralism and it borrows
heavily from the structuralism originally propounded by Lévi-Strauss, which
fundamentally looks at levels of social reality (Lévi-Strauss, 1963).
• This brand of structuralism was inspired by the work Edmund Leach (1982),
who was critical towards the structural-functionalist perspective and who
drew on Lévi-Strauss (1963).
• However, he also found grounds for critiquing Lévi-Strauss. Leach, who in
stark contrast to Lévi-Strauss was more concerned with researching
people's actual lives rather than with the discovery of universal mental
structures, found that the latter's analysis of the some cultures contained
serious flaws.
• According to Leach (1982), Lévi-Strauss was ambitious, meaning that his
analyses were too superficial and the available data treated with too little
care (Leach, 1982; Shilabukha, 2000:18).
Relevance of the theory
• Culture is the most important concept in anthropology. Thus, it is no
accident that anthropology has always been keenly interested in cultural
survival. However, this cultural survival must be tied to ecological survival.
• In this way, indigenous knowledge can be represented as emerging from a
complex structural system composed of three subsystems: context,
practice and belief.
• Thus, indigenous knowledge as contextual knowledge is based on history,
demographic factors and biophysical features of place.
• Indigenous Knowledge as practice depicts meaningful action, through
physical interaction with the environment and experiential learning.
• Knowledge as belief portrays the influence that spirituality, laws, norms
and values have on how people act within their ecosystem.
• At this point it would be prudent to introduce ethnography in support of a
structural, though, non-materialistic conception of an ecosystem.
Research Site
Location and size
• The study was carried out in the area between Kisauni in Mombasa
County and Matsangoni in Kilifi County
• In Mombasa, the study site included villages in Kisauni and Bamburi.
• In Kilifi County, the study included villages in Shanzu, Mtwapa,
Kanamai and Matsangoni.
• These are areas where people live in close proximity to the marine
resources. As such these people are intimately related to the marine
resources.
Study Design
• This study was cross-sectional, descriptive and exploratory in nature.
It was carried out between November 2012 and October 2013.
• It employed qualitative methods of data collection. It involved
frequent field visits.
• Most of the data collected was qualitative. Quantitative data such as
age of the respondents, categories in marital status and the number
of years spent on interacting with resources were analysed through
computing averages such as the mean, range, mode and percentages.
• They were then presented through descriptive statistics such as
frequency distributions and tables
• Qualitative data analysis was done through content and thematic
analysis.
• This entailed the cyclical process where data collection was done
simultaneously with data analysis, that is, reading, rereading,
intuiting, analyzing, synthesizing, and reporting on the data.
Study population and unit of analysis
• The study population included all individuals from the Giriama
community aged 18 years and above living in the research site. The
unit of analysis was the individual Giriama aged 18 years and above
residing in the study site.
Data collection methods
In-depth interviews
• There were 40 in-depth interviews, which involved local people with
general knowledge about ecological conservation. The researcher
used an in-depth interview guide
Data collection
Focus group discussions
• There were six focus group discussions for men and women and these were
held to grant the study an opportunity to revisit emerging issues without
necessarily going back to the same respondents. The groups comprised 8 –
10 individuals. Three FGDs for women were undertaken at Kisauni,
Bamburi and Matsangoni, while the men’s FGDs were undertaken at
Shanzu, Mtwapa and Kanamai.
Key informant interviews
• There were 15 key informant interviews, which captured information
through a key informant interview guide
Transect walks
• These were systematic walks along defined paths (transects) across the
resource areas together with the local people to explore the position,
condition and importance of the resources by observing, asking, listening
and looking.
• Observation and informal interviews
• The purpose of these methods was to gain general insights into local vis-avis pragmatic perspectives on marine resource management. These
methods were applied throughout the lifespan of the fieldwork.
Findings
The nature and significance of indigenous knowledge on marine resources
• The Giriama have evolved different notions of the natural world in
ways that suit them and their particular context.
• Their perceptions and knowledge are by their values, worldviews, and
environmental ethics.
• Knowledge of different environmental aspects was also
demonstrated.
• For instance, the mangroves are generally referred to as mikoko, which is the
local name for the most widespread and common of the mangrove species,
namely, Rhizophora mucronata. The mangrove forests are highly valued in the
community.
• These findings indicate that the community monitors the climatic
conditions that affect the resources. These climatic conditions are
monitored in various ways. For instance, in monitoring rainfall, the
community checks for certain signs and indicators.
Findings Cont.…
Indigenous nomenclature and taxonomy
• The Giriama, like many other indigenous groups of people in various
parts of the world, perceive and interact with nature in ways they
have developed over decades.
• In the process of interacting with the marine ecosystem they have
developed a system of naming "things" as part of the general
communication using words and language.
• It is an aspect of everyday taxonomy as we distinguish the objects of
our experience, together with their similarities and differences, which
we identify, name and classify.
• Thus, the Giriama nomenclature helps to mentally structure the
marine world in relation to word meanings and experience.
Findings
Nomenclature
• The Giriama have a system of classifying and naming the mangrove
ecosystem.
• There are species and sub-species in the ecosystem. For the Giriama
the mangroves not only refer to the trees found in the intertidal zones
but also the animals.
• Discussions with the elderly respondents revealed that the
mangroves actually divide themselves in zones and stages from inland
into the sea
Findings
Local name
Botanical name
Mlilana
Sonneratia alba
Mkoko
Rhizophora mucronata
Mkandaa
Geriops tagal
Muia/Mkoko wimbi
Bruguiera gymnorhiza
Mkomafi dume
Xylocarpus moluccensis
Msikundazi/Mkungu
Heritiera litoralis
Kikandaa
Lumnitzera racemosa
Findings
• Corals are known locally in Swahili as matumbawe and coral reefs are
known as miamba ya baharini.
• Coral reefs provide habitats for marine fish species, build tropical islands,
protect coasts from waves and storms, and contain an array of potential
pharmaceuticals, and support tourism and fishing industries worth billions
of dollars.
• The distribution of corals is affected by the force of waves.
• Where the waves are strong there will be more corals and, therefore, a
number of species that feed on the corals as well as depend on the corals
for the supply of oxygen.
• Small corals are found in the creeks. These corals are believed to belong to
ancestors
Findings
Classification of fisheries
• The number of aquatic organisms distinguished and named by the
Giriama fishers is enormous, reflecting both the extent of indigenous
knowledge they possess and the species diversity characteristic of the
coral reef areas, mangrove forests and the deep sea.
• In classifying the fisheries, we have those species found among corals,
mangroves and the open deep sea.
• According to the respondents, the location of the species is a function
of adaptation to the conditions as well as their survival needs
Findings
Overview of beliefs on marine resources
• The Giriama people have the knowledge and technology which makes
it possible for them to adapt to their environment. Their culture, as
demonstrated in their indigenous knowledge, is a major way of
managing the fragile mangrove ecosystem.
• A major aspect of their culture which demonstrates the importance
of the resources to the people is a system of linguistic genres, beliefs
and rituals related to the marine resources.
• This is a system of rituals, taboos, proverbs, songs, curses and spells
that touch on the marine resources.
• According to Giriama cosmology, the sea is home to many evil spirits
which should be dealt with carefully.
Findings
Emerging issues
• During the study, a number of issues related to sustainable management of
marine resources came to the fore. For many years the management of the
marine resources was placed in the hands of elders in the community. These
elders enacted rules and regulations that dictated how the resources would be
harvested.
• Some of the indigenous methods of conservation were rotational extraction of
mangrove, fishery and coral resources. For example, mangrove cutters would
harvest trees and tree products from one area and then proceed to another after
exhausting the mature trees and their products in that area.
• Another technique was to place a taboo or restriction on entry to a given area of
the forest for some time due to ritual pollution or mistreatment of the trees
through wanton destruction. The elders would also declare a certain species or
part of it sacred for some period of time.
• The same would apply to fisheries, corals and coral reefs.
• These rules were in place because the Giriama people depend a lot on their
environment and this makes them pay attention to it.
Conclusion
• The Giriama, like many indigenous communities, have evolved
different notions of the natural world in ways that suit them and their
particular context.
• The implication is that they have developed a strong tradition of
environmental knowledge in regard to the marine resources and
ecosystems.
• This is evident in their beliefs, perceptions and attitudes, which are in
part shaped by their values, worldview, and environmental ethics.
• Among the Giriama, cosmology and indigenous belief systems are the
very foundations of this epistemological evolution.
• This means that the exploration of environmental ethics and culture
in this community can be seen through the nature and significance of
indigenous knowledge.
Recommendations
• Recommendations
• Systematic anthropological studies by scholars to capture and
evaluate indigenous knowledge on early warning systems, indigenous
natural resource and ecosystem monitoring and evaluation.
• Further studies into indigenous knowledge systems in the context of
sustainable livelihood initiatives and appropriate technologies.
• The incorporation of local communities such as the Giriama people,
through their indigenous knowledge systems, in future plans to
manage natural resources by government agencies.
• The integration and consultation of indigenous experts in the areas of
conservation; environmental management and public policy.
• Policy instruments should be formulated to take into account the
needs, aspirations and contributions of local communities and their
knowledge on marine and other natural resources.