Transcript fast facts on sea otters

Chapter 9
Lecture
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Chapter 9
Marine Turtles, Mammals and
Seabirds
Marine Reptiles
Four types of marine reptiles exist today:
1. Sea Turtles
2. Sea Snakes
3. Marine Iguana
4. Saltwater Crocodile
Sea Turtles
• All species of sea turtles are threatened or
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endangered
Endangered means that a species is under direct
threat of species survival (extinction is a definite
threat)
Threatened means that the species may become
endangered
Both designations give these species protection
under the Endangered Species Act
Sea Turtles
• Seven or eight species of sea turtles exist today:
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Leatherback sea turtle
Loggerhead sea turtle
Hawksbill sea turtle
Olive ridley sea turtle
Kemps ridley sea turtle
Australian flatback sea turtle
Green sea turtle – some biologists recognize two
species of green turtles, the Pacific green turtle and
the Atlantic green turtle (this is the reason for the 7
or 8 species discrepancy)
Sea Turtles
• Structurally, sea turtles have an upper shell
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known as the carapace and a lower shell known
as the plastron
The ribs are expanded in size and fused to their
shell
All sea turtles have powerful jaws, but no teeth
Like other reptiles, sea turtles are poikilothermic
and ectothermic although the leatherback sea
turtle is so large that its body temperature is
normally several degrees above the ambient
water temperature
Sea Turtles
• Sea turtles breed at sea
• Internal fertilization occurs – males use their
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long tails as well as the claws on the front
flippers to “grip” the female during reproduction
Females can store sperm
One clutch (group) of eggs can have multiple
paternity – males and females are not
monogamous
Sea Turtles
• Females normally breed every 2-4 years
• These females must return to land to deposit their
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eggs near the dune line (above the high tide)
Females dig a hole in the sand using only the back
flippers
During their breeding year, females may lay up to 7
clutches of eggs
Each clutch of eggs normally has an average of 120
eggs, although large variations in these numbers
have been recorded
Sea Turtles
• The eggs have a typical incubation period of
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around 60 days – although this varies according
to air temperature.
Warmer temperatures means eggs will develop
faster, colder temperatures elongate the
incubation process (a range of 45-75 days is not
unusual)
The eggs are very leathery at the time the
mother lays the eggs
As they incubate, they become more brittle,
making it easier for the hatchlings to escape the
egg
Sea Turtles
• Sea turtles, like many reptiles, exhibit
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temperature dependent sex determination
This means that the gender of the hatchling is
not genetically predetermined
Gender is determined by the temperature of the
environment in which the egg was incubated
For each species, there is a “pivotal”
temperature that will generate 50% males and
50% females; temperatures higher than pivotal
will produce more females, temperatures lower
than pivotal will produce more males
Sea Turtles
• The smallest of the sea turtles is the Kemps Ridley at
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around 100 cm and just over 100 pounds
The Kemps Ridley was long thought to be a hybrid of
other species of sea turtles because for MANY years, no
nesting site for the Kemps Ridley turtles was ever seen
Then, one nesting site was finally located in Rancho
Nuevo, Mexico
Due to the critically endangered status of this species,
this nesting site is now jointly managed by the US and
Mexican government wildlife agencies
Sea Turtles
• The green sea turtle is the only “vegetarian”
• It is called the green sea turtle because the fat in its
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body is slightly green as a result of its diet of seagrasses
and algae
Green sea turtles are normally considered tropical
nesting turtles, but green sea turtles have nested
regularly in Florida as long as records have been kept
Sea Turtles
• Interestingly, green sea turtles are now nesting as
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far north as North Carolina
Each summer, dozens of nesting reports for green
sea turtles come in from all over the NC coast
The first report of green turtle nesting in NC
occurred in the 1950’s
In the 1980’s, nest reports started climbing
Insert picture of green sea turtle from the
“Endangered Sea Turtles” box reading
Sea Turtles
• The loggerhead sea turtle is the least vulnerable
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of the sea turtles with regards to numbers – its
status is listed as threatened
Like the kemps ridley and the olive ridley, the
loggerhead feeds mainly on invertebrates such
as crabs and molluscs
Sea Turtles
• The leatherback is the largest of the sea turtles
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reaching over 6 ft and 1000 lbs
These turtles feed often on jellyfish but can dive
to deep depths to feed on other prey items
The hawksbill is a tropical species of sea turtle
This species feeds mainly on corals, sponges
and associated invertebrates
Sea Snakes
• There are 55 species of sea snakes
• These snakes are found only in the Indian
and Pacific Ocean
• These snakes have a laterally flattened
body with a paddle-like tail for propulsion
through the water
• Most species are 3-4 feet in length as
adults
Sea Snakes
• Sea snakes breed at sea and most species
are ovoviviparous
• A few species still return to land to lay eggs
• Bites from sea snakes can be fatal for
humans– the sea snakes are related to the
cobra and have a powerful venom
• Fortunately, sea snakes are not known to
be aggressive
• Sea snakes are carnivorous and mainly feed
on fish
Saltwater Crocodile
• This species is found in Australia, the Indian Ocean and
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some Western Pacific Islands
It can be found in estuaries, mangrove swamps, rivers
and the open ocean
It is a predatory species that eats all types of prey items
including humans
The saltwater crocodile is a large species reaching
lengths of over 30 feet (although individuals over 20 feet
are rare)
This species is not secretive like the American Crocodile,
but is an aggressive hunter
Marine Iguanas
• Marine iguanas live on the Galapagos
Islands
• While they are called marine, they only
spend a portion of their time in the water
• They dive to feed on seagrass near the
shore
• A large portion of their day is spent
basking on the shore to warm up from
their dives in the cold water surrounding
the Galapagos
Seabirds
• Seabirds, like mammals, are able to
maintain a constant body temperature
derived through metabolic means
• The feathers that cover the body are
coated with an oil from glandular
secretions
• This oil helps to waterproof the body
• The hard shelled egg provides more
protection than the leathery shell of
reptiles
Seabirds
• Many species of seabirds are colonial nesters
- they nest in large colonies of individuals
near the shore – some on cliffs, others in low
shrubs or trees, others directly on the
ground
• Some species are monogamous and mate for
life
• Birds are well known for their protection of
young and other behaviors such as preening
and complex rituals for selecting a mate
• Fig. 9.6, pg. 182 Seabirds
shows examples of penguins, a
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well-known sea bird
Penguins are flightless with the wing modified into
a flipper-like structure
Penguins spend a great deal of time in the marine
environment searching for prey
Most species of penguins live mainly in Antarctica
They have a layer of fat and trap air in the
feathers to help them survive these cold
environments
Males and females share parenting responsibilities
Seabirds
• Other species of seabirds do exist such as
shearwaters, petrels, albatross, frigate birds,
pelicans and cormorants
• However, none of these birds are adapted to
the marine environment in the same way
that penguins are
• Even those that spend long periods of time
at sea still have features very much like
terrestrial birds
Characteristics of Mammals
• 4600 species
• Skin possesses hair
• Homeotherms
• Mostly viviparous with placenta
• Mammary and other glands
• Larger brain in relation to body size
• Many sexually dimorphic (males and
females look different in size, coloration,
features, etc)
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Major Groups of Marine Mammals
1.
2.
3.
4.
Pinnipedia – seals, sea lions and walrus
Carnivora – sea otter and polar bear
Sirenia – dugong and manatees
Cetacea – whales, dolphins and
porpoises
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Order Pinnipedia
• Below is a comparison of sea lions/fur seals versus true seals.
• Notice the external ear of sea lions/fur seals (not present in
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seals).
Also notice that sea lions/fur seals can rotate the rear limbs
forward for more efficient locomotion on land.
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Order Pinnipedia
Seals:
• 19 species
• Most live in cool or cold water
• Monk seals are the exception – they love in warmer
waters
• Hawaiian and Mediterranean monk seals are endangered
• Caribbean monk seals have not been seen since the
1950’s
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Order Pinnipedia
FAST FACTS ON SEALS:
• SIZE: Range extensively in size from 110-580 cm (3.6-19 ft.);
males are approximately the same size as females
• WEIGHT: Range in weight from 50-5,000 kg (110-11,023 lb)
• DIET: Generally eat various fish, shell fish and cephalopods
• GESTATION:270-350 days; some species have delayed
implantation
• NURSING DURATION10-80 days
• SEXUAL MATURITY: Varies by species (Males generally 4-6
years; females generally 4 years)
• LIFE SPAN: Varies; up to 45 years in ringed seals (Pusa
hispida) and 14 years in male elephant seals (Mirounga
leonina)
• RANGE: Coastlines and ice fronts throughout the world except
the Indian Ocean. Some species are found in inland lakes.
• HABITAT: Prefer coastal areas with shallow waters near
abundant food sources.
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Order Pinnipedia
FAST FACTS ON SEA LIONS/FUR SEALS:
• DESCRIPTION: Elongated, fusiform body with a
small tail. The limbs are flattened and thick.
Forelimbs are long and oar-like. Their snouts are
blunt and have numerous sensitive whiskers.
• SIZE: Range in size from approximately 110-330
cm (3.6-10.8 ft.); males are much larger than
females.
• WEIGHT:21.5-1,000 kg (47-2,205 lb)
• DIET: Generally various fish species and
invertebrates
• GESTATION:10-12 months including period of
delayed implantation
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Order Pinnipedia
FAST FACTS ON SEA LIONS/FUR SEALS:
• NURSING DURATION: 3-36 months
• SEXUAL MATURITY: Varies by species (Male,
generally 4-6 years; female, generally 4 years)
• LIFE SPAN: Typically ranges from 15-25 years;
rarely exceeds 30 years
• RANGE: Coast of northeastern Asia, western
North America, South America, southern Africa,
southern Australia, New Zealand and many
southern islands
• HABITAT: Prefer coastal areas with shallow
waters near abundant food sources
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Order Pinnipedia
FAST FACTS ON WALRUSES:
• DESCRIPTION: Walruses are very distinctive
having a large, robust, fusiform body that is usually
reddish-brown in color. On their head region,
walruses lack external ear flaps, have hundreds of
short, vibrissae (whiskers), and both males and
females possess large tusks. Like other pinnipeds,
the fore and hind limbs of a walrus are modified into
flippers.
• On land, walruses are capable of rotating their hind
flippers under their pelvic girdle to walk on all fours
in a similar manner to sea lions. Adult males are
slightly larger than females with longer and stouter
tusks.
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Order Pinnipedia
FAST FACTS ON WALRUSES:
• SIZE: The Pacific subspecies is larger than the Atlantic.
Newborn calves are about 95-123 cm (3-4 ft.) long.
MALE2.7-3.6 m (9-12 ft.) FEMALE2.3-3.1 m (7.5 to 10 ft.)
• WEIGHT: Newborn claves weigh about 45-75 kg (99-156
lb.)
• DIET: Mainly bivalve mollusks such as clams; also other
benthic invertebrates such as marine worms, snails, sea
cucumbers, squids, and crabs. May occasionally prey upon
fish such as polar cod and scavenge on seal carcasses.
There are rare cases of very large, male walruses that
habitually prey upon seals, especially ringed and bearded
seals.
• GESTATION: 15-16 months, including a period of
delayed implantation
• NURSING DURATION: 2 or more years (wean)
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Order Pinnipedia
FAST FACTS ON WALRUSES:
• SEXUAL MATURITY: MALE8-10 years;
successful reproduction probably not until about
15 years; FEMALE 5-6 years; successful
reproduction at about 10 years
• LIFE SPAN: 16-30 years
• RANGE: Arctic Sea - both Pacific and Atlantic
(Bering, Laptev and Chukchi seas)
• HABITAT: In relatively shallow water generally not more than 80 m (262 ft.) deep.
Hauls out on ice floes, pack ice and small rocky
islands when ice is not present.
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Below is a illustration of a walrus.
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Order Carnivora
FAST FACTS ON SEA OTTERS:
• DESCRIPTION: sea otters do possess the fine, dense fur
coats. Their forefeet are small and dexterous with retractile
claws and the flipper-like hind feet are broad and webbed.
Juvenile sea otters tend to be a uniform dark-cinnamon
brown while adults develop lighter gray or buff coloration on
their heads. In general, mature male sea otters tend to be
slightly larger than females of their respective subspecies.
• SIZE: Alaskan sea otters are slightly larger than California
sea otters. Male Alaskan sea otters reach lengths up to 148
cm (58 in.) and male California sea otters average 122 cm
(4 ft.) Female Alaskan sea otters measure up to 140 cm (55
in.) in length
• WEIGHT: Mature male Alaskan sea otters weigh up to 39
kg (85 lb.), while California sea otters average 29 kg (64
lb.) Adult female Alaskan sea otters can reach weights of
up to 33 kg (72 lb.), and female California sea otters weigh
on average 20 kg (44 lb.)
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Order Carnivora
FAST FACTS ON SEA OTTERS:
• DIET: A sea otter has a metabolic rate much higher than
most mammals of similar size, and must consume large
quantities of food. Adult sea otters may eat as much as 9 kg
(20 lb.) of food each day. Among their food preferences are
sea urchins, crabs, abalone, clams, mussels, octopus, and
fishes. Most sea otters specialize in only a few types of the
available food items.
• GESTATION: Approximately 4-9 months with an average
of 6 months; probably includes a 2-3 month period of
delayed implantation
• ESTRAL PERIOD: The reproductive cycle in California sea
otters is about 12 months. If a female's pup doesn't survive,
she may experience postpartum estrus.
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Order Carnivora
FAST FACTS ON SEA OTTERS:
• NURSING DURATION: Approximately 6-8
months (wean)
• SEXUAL MATURITY: Approximately 5-6 years
in males and 4 years for females
• LIFE SPAN: On average, 10-15 years.
• RANGE: In coastal regions throughout the
eastern North Pacific Ocean.
• HABITAT: Typically found in coastal waters no
further away than 1 km (0.6 mi.) from shore.
The Alaskan sea otter has a greater tendency to
haul out (come to shore) than the California
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Photo of Sea Otter in Typical
Habitat – Kelp Community
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Order Carnivora
FAST FACTS ON POLAR BEARS:
• DESCRIPTION: Polar bears are the largest land carnivore. They
have a thick fur coat that appears white in coloration, but is really
translucent. Their black skin color is readily apparent on the nose,
eyes, lips and footpads. Polar bears have smaller ears and longer
necks than other bears. Adult male polar bears, called boars, are
substantially larger than adult females.
• SIZE: At birth, cubs are about 30 cm (12 in.) long; Males typically
2.5-3 m (8.2-9.8 ft.) long; Females typically 2-2.5 m (6.6-8.2 ft.)
long
• WEIGHT: Newborn calves weigh about 454-680 g (16-24 oz.);
Males weigh 350-650 kg (772-1,433 lb.); Females weigh 150-250 kg
(331-551 lb.)
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Order Carnivora
FAST FACTS ON POLAR BEARS:
• DIET: Adult polar bears need an average of 2 kg
(4.4 lb.) of fat per day to maintain their weight.
Their diet includes mostly ringed and bearded seals
and also includes other seal species, walruses,
narwhals, beluga whales, whale carcasses, fish,
reindeer, birds, eggs, berries and kelp.
• GESTATION: About 8 months; includes about a 4
month period of delayed implantation
• ESTRAL PERIOD: Females are induced ovulators;
mating triggers the release of an egg for
fertilization
• NURSING DURATION: 18-30 months (wean)
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Order Carnivora
FAST FACTS ON POLAR BEARS:
• SEXUAL MATURITY: Males about 6 years;
females about 4 years
• LIFE SPAN: Typically 15-18 years; some
have lived over 30 years
• RANGE: Circumpolar arctic
• HABITAT: Inhabit Arctic sea ice, water,
islands, and continental coastlines
• POPULATION: Estimated at 21,500-25,000
globally
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Order Sirenia
• Trichechus inunguis, the Amazonian manatee. The
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Amazonian manatee is the smallest of the manatees.
Several physical characteristics distinguish it from the other
two species. It lacks nails on its pectoral fins, and usually
has whitish patches on its underside.
Trichechus manatus, the West Indian manatee. There are
two subspecies of the West Indian manatee: the Florida
manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) and the Antillean
manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus). These subspecies
are distinguished by differences in cranial measurements
and by their geographic distribution.
Trichechus senegalensis, the West African manatee. About
the same size and shape of the West Indian manatee, the
West African manatee differs in some important respects:
position of the eyes, snout, and cranial bones.
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Order Sirenia
FAST FACTS ON MANATEES:
• The manatee's body is streamlined - full around the
middle and narrowing to a paddle-shaped tail. The true
color of a manatee is gray, although it may appear
brownish gray.
• Amazonian manatees usually have white or pink patches
on the belly and chest. Organisms such as algae, which
may grow on the skin of slow-moving individuals, alter
the body color and make some manatees look more
green or brown.
• West Indian manatees are the species found in the
United States.
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Order Sirenia
FAST FACTS ON MANATEES:
• SIZE: Adult West Indian and West African
manatees average about 3 m (10 ft.) in length.
Large individuals may reach lengths of up to 4 m
(13 ft.). Amazonian manatees are the smallest of
all three species. They are shorter and more
slender. The longest specimen measured 2.8 m
(9.2 ft.).
• WEIGHT: Average adult weights are
approximately 363 to 544 kg (800-1,200 lb.). One
particularly large Florida manatee weighed 1,655
kg (3,650 lb.). Females are generally larger than
males. A particularly large Amazonian manatee
individual weighed 480 kg (1,058 lb.).
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Order Sirenia
FAST FACTS ON MANATEES:
• DIET: Manatees are primarily herbivores. They feed on a wide variety of
submerged, emergent, floating, and shoreline vegetation. Manatees
consume about 4% to 9% (15 to 49 kg or 32-108 lb. for an average adult
manatee) of their body weight in wet vegetation daily. Manatees have
occasionally been seen to eat foods other than plants. Antillean manatees
have been known to eat fish from nets and West African manatees have
been known to eat clams. Some Amazonian manatees living in deep
bodies of water apparently fast during dry seasons (November and
December) when water levels drop as much as 9 to 15 m (30-50 ft.),
eliminating their access to vegetation. Because manatees have a very low
metabolic rate, it is speculated that Amazonian manatees are able to fast
for up to seven months if necessary.
• GESTATION: The exact gestation period of most manatee species is not
known and is poorly studied. It is known, however, that a Florida
manatee's gestation is approximately 12 months.
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Order Sirenia
FAST FACTS ON MANATEES:
• SEXUAL MATURITY: Male manatees
(bulls) are sexually mature by about
nine to ten years, although some have
produced viable sperm at two to three
years of age. Female manatees (cows)
are sexually mature as young as three
years of age.
• LIFE SPAN: No data
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Order Sirenia
FAST FACTS ON MANATEES:
• RANGE: All living manatee species are found in warm tropical
and subtropical waters. The West Indian manatee was once
abundant throughout the tropic and subtropical western
North and South Atlantic and Caribbean waters. However, the
manatee's numbers have been greatly reduced and is rarely
seen throughout its range. The range of the Florida manatee
is primarily peninsular Florida but extends as far north as
Rhode Island. Manatees have been rescued near Houston,
Texas, and Mississippi.
• Antillean manatees have a patchy distribution throughout the
Caribbean, Mexico, and northeastern South America. The
southern range extends through Central and South America
to Brazil.
• West African manatees range from Senegal to Angola, on the
west coast of Africa.
• Amazonian manatees are the only species of manatee
confined to fresh water. They inhabit the Amazon Basin,
mostly in Brazil. They are uncommon or close to extinction in
Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia.
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Order Sirenia
FAST FACTS ON MANATEES:
• HABITAT: The West Indian and West African manatees
inhabit rivers, bays, canals, estuaries, and coastal areas
rich in seagrass and other vegetation. They can live in
fresh, saline (salt), and brackish waters.
• West Indian manatees may be found in any waterway over
1 m (3.25 ft.) deep and connected to the coast. They
prefer waters with temperatures above 21°C (70°F).
• West African manatees live in quiet coastal areas, large
rivers, lagoons, and connected lakes, where the water
temperature is above 18°C (64°F).
• The Amazonian manatee is restricted to fresh water. They
are most common in floodplain lakes and channels in
white-water river systems with water temperatures ranging
from 25°-30°C (77°-86°F).
• The patchy distribution of manatees throughout all their
ranges is due to their search of suitable habitat: plentiful
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aquatic plants and a freshwater source of water to drink.
Illustration of a typical manatee.
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Order Cetacea
• This order includes whales, dolphins and
porpoises.
• Fore limbs are modified into flippers.
• Fin-like tail is known as a fluke.
• Nostrils are located on the top of the head
as a single or double opening known as a
blowhole.
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Order Cetacea
• Within the cetacea, two suborders exist, toothed
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whales (Odontocetes) and baleen whales
(Mysticetes).
Visually, the two suborders can be easily
distinguished by the presence of teeth and a
single blowhole (Odontocetes) or baleen and
two blowholes.
SIZE: In general, baleen whales are much
larger than toothed whales, ranging in length
from about 6.4-27 m (21-85 ft.). Most toothed
whales are less than 6.1 m (20 ft.) long.
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Baleen whales have rows of flexible, fibrous plates known as baleen
that hang from the upper jaws (seen in diagram below).
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Order Cetacea
• Baleen whales are filter feeders. They take
in huge mouthfuls of water containing
small fishes or invertebrates. The baleen
traps the prey, and water is forced back
out of the mouth.
• Baleen whales are represented by 13
species, including the right whale, gray
whale, blue whale, and humpback whale.
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Examples of Baleen Whales
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Whales may be identified from their fluke shape, blow pattern or side view during a dive (as shown below).
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Order Cetacea
• Toothed whales are named for their
simple, peg-like teeth, which vary
considerably in number and size among the
species. The teeth of dolphins are conical
and interlocking, while those of porpoises
are spade-shaped. River dolphins have
numerous teeth; most beaked whales have
only one or two visible pairs. Teeth are
adapted for grasping and tearing, rather
than chewing.
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Order Cetacea
• Toothed whales include dolphins,
porpoises, belugas, narwhals, sperm
whales, killer whales, river dolphins, and
beaked whales.
• Depending on the species, toothed whales
may be found in coastal waters, rivers or
in the pelagic environment.
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Examples of Toothed Whales
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Adaptations for Diving:
• Rapid breathing prior to dive -known as
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apneustic breathing
Lungs remove 90% of O2 from air (as
opposed to 20% for humans)
Elastic tissue in lungs helps them expand
the lungs temporarily during apneustic
breathing
Marine mammals have more blood than
non-diving mammals for their size (means
more hemoglobin to carry oxygen)
Muscles contain more myoglobin to hold
oxygen in tissues
The heart rate slows dramatically during a
dive – known as bradycardia
Blood flow is reduced to extremities and
digestive system
Muscles employ anaerobic respiration as
necessary (results in lactic acid build-up)
Marine mammals can tolerate more lactic
acid than other mammals
Rib cage and lungs collapse during dive to
force air into tissues and prevent
decompression sickness
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Echolocation
• Sound waves are emitted
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as a series of clicks of
varying frequencies
Melon directs the outgoing
sound waves
After the echo strikes an
object, it is reflected back
These reflected echoes are
received back by the melon
and lower jaw
The longer it takes a echo
to return, the farther away
the object is located
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Marine Mammal Behaviors
• Marine mammals as well known for their
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vocalizations such as the “barking” of sea lions
and songs of the humpback whale.
Marine mammals engage in play activities
regularly including sexual play.
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Marine Mammal Behaviors
• Many species of marine
mammals are known to
jump out of the water
and crash back into the
water on their backs. This
is known as breaching.
• The reasons for this
behavior may be
removing parasites, a
warning signal, to avoid
suitors or to have fun!
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Marine Mammal Behaviors
• Marine mammals sometimes hold their bodies
out of the water. This behavior is known as
“spyhopping.”
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Marine Mammal Behaviors
• Many marine mammals are known for their long
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migrations.
The longest migration is that of the gray whale;
this migration is over 11,000 miles!!
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Notable Migrations
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Marine Mammal Behaviors
Care giving and Strandings:
• When one member of a group (pod) of animals is
sick/injured, other members will care for it. Mass
strandings are often the result of caregivers following a
sick/injured animal to shore.
• As an example, 58 pilot whales mass stranded in July,
2002 at Chapin Beach. Volunteers desperately tried to
protect the animals from the summer heat with sheets
and water, but unfortunately the elements proved too
extreme for the whales.
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Reproduction in Marine Mammals
• Fertilization is internal via copulation
• Copulation occurs on land for pinnipeds where
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males compete for “harems”
Other marine mammals copulate at sea
Sexual play is common in marine mammals
Some marine mammals use delayed
implantation of the fetus – this allows the calf to
be born at a time that is best for the survival of
the calf
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Reproduction in Marine Mammals
• Gestation time varies in marine mammals;
normally 11-12 months in cetaceans.
• Calves are born tail first so that they can
remain attached to the placenta until the
entire body is out and the animal can be
forced to the water’s surface to take its
first breath.
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Most Important Characteristics
of Marine Reptiles, Seabirds,
and Marine Mammals