Transcript Document

Biofouling formation and
remedial measures
introduction
• Biofouling is the undesirable accumulation of
microorganisms, plants, algae, and/or animals on wetted
structures.
• Biofouling is one of the most important problems
currently facing marine technology. In the marine
environment any solid surface will become fouled.
• Marine and freshwater biofouling is one of the major
unsolved problems currently affecting the shipping
industry and industrial aquatic processes.
• Marine biofouling commonly refers to the adverse
growth of marine organisms on immersed artificial
structures such as ship hulls, jetty pilings, navigational
instruments, aquaculture net cages and seawater in
taking pipes
• The establishment of the fouling community is composed
of four stages (Fig. 1; Abarzua and Jakubowski, 1995)
and some of these stages can overlap or occur in parallel.
Figure 1.Process of fouling: The 4 main stages of marine biofouling (NERC
News 1995)
Formation of biofouling
• Biofouling is not as simple a process as it sounds.
Organisms do not usually simply suck onto a substrate
like a suction cup. The complex process often begins
with the production of a biofilm.
Figure 3 Biofouling
cycle
Formation of Microfouling
• In the aquatic environment, any submerged solid
surface gets coated by a complex layer, initially
consisting of an organic conditioning film.
• Formation of this film is immediately followed by an
accumulation of microorganisms (eg. bacteria, fungi,
diatoms, and other micro-organisms) and the secretion
at their cell surface of extra cellular polymeric
substances (EPS) during attachment, colonization, and
population growth.
• A biofilm is a film made of bacteria, such as Thiobacilli or
other microorganisms, that forms on a material when
conditions are right. (Gehrke, T; Sand, W. 2003).
• Nutrient availability is an important factor; bacteria
require dissolved organic carbon, humic substances
and uronic acid for optimum biofilm growth.( Griebe, T;
Flemming, HC. 2000).
• Bacteria are not the only organisms that can create this
initial site of attachment (sometimes called the slime
layer); diatoms, seaweed, and their secretions are also
culprits.
Figure 4 Biofouling cycle (Source:
Center for Nanoscale Science and
Engineering)
Formation of macrofouling
• A macrofouling community consisting of either 'soft
fouling' or 'hard fouling’ may develop and overgrow the
microfouling.
• Soft fouling comprises algae and invertebrates, such
as soft corals, sponges, anemones, tunicates and
hydroids.
• Hard fouling comprises invertebrates such as
barnacles, mussels and tubeworms, bryazons and
seaweeds (Callow and Callow 2002).
• According to biofouling processes, the following
overlapping time sequence is observed: bacteria appear
after approximately 1 to 2 hour, diatoms after several
hours, spores of macroalgae and protozoa after 1 week
and larvae of macro-foulers after 2 to 3 weeks (Von
Oertzen et al., 1989).
Figure 7 Temporal structure of
settlement
Effects of biofouling:
• Both micro- and macrofouling in the world’s oceans
cause huge material and economic losses in
maintenance of mariculture facilities, shipping facilities,
vessels, and seawater pipelines (Wahl, 1997; Clare,
1998;Fusetani, 2004; Yebra et al., 2004).
• Biofouling increases weight and frictional resistance of
the ship, thus affecting its hydrodynamics, speed and
maneuverability (Rolland and DeSimone 2003).
• Biofouling is everywhere. Parts of a ship other than the
hull are affected as well: heat exchangers, water-cooling
pipes, propellers, even the ballast water. (Brizzolara,
RA. 2002).
• biofouling on ship hulls is a powerful way of spreading
species to new parts of the world oceans leading to
bioinvasion, which is now recognised as a major threat
to biodiversity (Anil et al., 2002).
• Heating and cooling systems biofouling might also be
found in power stations or factories. Just like a clogged
drain in your kitchen or bathroom, buildup of matter
inside cooling system pipes decreases performance.
• Again, fouling causes a domino effect. Equipment must
be cleaned frequently, at times with harsh chemicals,
and the obstruction of piping can lead to a shutdown of
plants and economic losses. (De Rincon et al., 2001).
• In aquaculture, biofouling problems are of two types - on
infrastructure (immersed mesh cages and trawls) and on
stock organisms, particularly mussels, oysters and
scallops.
• Yet another place biofouling organisms lurk is piping and
sprinkler system nozzles of fire protection systems
(Lewis, D P; Piontkowski et al., 1997).
Remedial measures of Biofouling
• Physical method
• Chemical method
• Biological method
Physical method
• The simplest method for treatment of fouling is simply to
remove by mechanical cleaning eg, by treatment of the
fouled surface with high-pressure water jets (Granhag
et al., 2004).
• scraping
Disadvantages
•
•
•
•
Costly
Time consuming
Less effective
Not easily applicable to everywhere
Chemical method
•
•
•
•
•
•
TBT
Copper
UV irritation
Chlorination
Titanium alloys(2m/sec )
Silicone elastomers (for fast vessels)
DISADVANTAGES
• Evidence of adverse effects of TBT prompted the International
Marine Organization to call for a ban on the application of TBT based
antifouling paints from 2003 and the presence of such paints on the
surface of ships from the year 2008.
• some want to eliminate copper-based coatings, claiming they are
responsible for the same negative effects as TBT.
• These are not organism specific.
Biological method
• There may be no greater way to fight nature than with nature itself.
• The disadvantages of physical and chemical methods we need the
help of natural source for producing ecofriendly antifouling
compounds.
• Several kinds of natural antifouling agents that inhibit growth of
fouling orgonisms have been isolated from marine organisms like
bacteria (Holrnstrom et al., 1996), marine algae (Abarzua et al.,
1999, de Nys et al., 1996, Eng-Wilmot et al., 1979, Gross et al.,
1991, Hellio et al., 2002, Ishida 2000, Murakami et al., 199 1, Wu
et al., 1998), sponges (Mokashe et al., 1994, Thakur 2001),
coelenterates (Davis et al., 1989, Targett et al., 1983, Targett
1988), holothurians (Mokashe et al., 1994) and ascidians (Thakur
2001).
• The new diterpene methoxy-ent-8(14)-pimarenely-15-one and the
three known metabolites ent-8(14)-pimarene-15R, 16-Diol,
stigmasterol,ß-sitosterol from the mangrove plant Ceriops tagal
(Chen et al., 2008). Diterpenes from brown sea weed Canistrocarpus
cervicornis also act as antifoulant metabolites (Bian co et al., 2009).
• Diterpene from Brazilian brown alga Dictyota pfafii (Barbosa et al.,
2007).
• Two antifouling compounds 3-methyl-N-(2-Phenylethyl) butanamide
and cyclo (D-Pro-D-Phe) from Letendraea helminthicola, a sponge
associated fungus (Yang et al., 2007).
• Vibrio biofilm formation inhibited by a marine actinomycete A66 (You
et al., 2007).
• The sesquiterpene hydroquinone avarol was isolated from the marine
sponge Dysidea avara .
• whereas the corresponding quinone, avarone was
obtained by oxidation of avarol toxic against the
settlement of the cyprid stage of Balanus amphitrite, and
for their growth inhibitory activity on fouling micro and
macroorganisms. (Tsoukatou et al., 2007).
conclusion
• Bio fouling remedial measures move towards nontoxic
antifoulants.
• Marine lives such as corals, sponges, marine plants,
and dolphins, etc., prevent the surface of their bodies
with antifouling substances without causing serious
environmental problems.
• Therefore, these substances may be expected to be
used, as new environmental friendly antifouling agents,
especially those having highly anesthetic, repellent, and
settlement inhibitory properties, etc., without showing
biocidal properties, are desirable.
• Many of the antifouling substances are found from these
marine animals, marine plants and microorganisms.
• Natural products antifoulants consist mainly of five kinds
of compound such as terpenes, nitrogen-containing
compounds, phenols, steroids and others.
• These are produced from sponges, corals, starfishes,
mussels, algae, terrestrial plants, etc.These compounds
are considered to play an important role in the
antifouling mechanism of marine organisms (Omae,
2006).
• Microorganisms from the marine environment are less
exploited for producing environmental friendly antifouling
compounds.
• In future, we expect to utilize some natural products,
their synthetic derivatives or their mixtures as ecofriendly antifouling agents.
• Using natural methods may be more cost effective than
specialized coatings, materials, or techniques.
• These industries' research might serve to overcome the
still-common misconception that businesses cannot
remain profitable without harming the environment.
• Research is still needed to determine the exact method
of applying this knowledge.
reference
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Abarzua S, Jakubowski S, (1995) Biotechnological investigation for the prevention of biofouling. I. Biological and
biochemical principles for the prevention of biofouling. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 123: 301-312
Anderson, J M; Cima, M J; Langer, R; Shawgo, R S; Shive, M S; von Recum, H; Voskerician, G. (2003)
Biocompatibility and biofouling of MEMS drug delivery devices. Biomaterials 24 (11), p.1959-67;
Anderson, C. 2002. TBT-Free Anti-Fouling Coatings IN 2003 For Better Or For Worse?Corrosion Management vol.
40, pp. 21-24
Baier RE (1984) Initial events in microbial film formation. In: Costlow JD, Tipper RC (eds) Marine biodeterioration: an
interdisciplinary study. E & FN Spon Ltd. London, p 57-62
Baier RE, Meyer AE, DePalma VA, King RW, Fornalik MS (1983) Surface microfouling during the induction period.
Journal of Heat Transfer-Transactions of the Asme, 105, 618-62
Bakus GJ, Targett NM, Schulte B (1986) Chemical ecology of marine organisms: an overview. Journal of Chemical
Ecology, 12: 951-987
Barbosa, J. P., B. G. Fleury, B.A.P.D. Gama,V. L. Teixeira, R. C. Pereira. (2007) Naturalproducts as antifoulants in the
Brazilian brown alga Dictyota pfaffii (Phaeophyta,Dictyotales). Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 35: 549-553.
Bhattarai. H. D., Y. K. Lee, K. H. Cho, H. K. Lee, and H. W. Shin. (2006) The study of antagonistic interactions among
pelagic bacteria: a promising way to coin environmental friendly antifouling compounds. Hydrobiologia. 568: 417-423.
Bianco, E. M., R. Rogers, V. L. Teixeira, and R. C. Pereira. (2009) Antifoulant diterpenes produced by the brown
seaweed Canistrocarpus cervicornis. J. Appl. Phycol. 21: 341-346.
Blidberg, DR. 1997. Solar-Powered Autonomous Undersea Vehicles. Sea Technology vol. 38, no. 12, pp. 45-51
Bott, TR; Miller, PC. (1983) Mechanisms of Biofilm Formation on Aluminum Tubes. J. Chem. Technol.
Biotechnol. 33B, (3), 177-184
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Brady, RF Jr. (2003) Antifouling coatings without organotin. Journal of Protective Coatings &
Linings vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 33,34,37
Burton, Dennis T; Fisher, Daniel J. (2001) Chlorine Dioxide - The State of Science, Regulatory,
Environmental Issues, and Case Histories. Report Number AD-A403858; Gunasingh
Masilamoni, J; Jesudoss, KS; Nandakumar, K; Satapathy, KK; Azariah, J; Nair, KVK 2002.
Lethal and sub-lethal effects of chlorination on green mussel Perna viridis in the context of
biofouling control in a power plant cooling water system. Marine Environmental ResearchVol.
53, no. 1, pp. 65-76
Callow ME, Callow JA. (2002) Marine biofouling: a sticky problem. The Biologist 49:10-14.
Characklis WG (1981) Microbial fouling: A process analysis. In E.F.C. Somerscales and JG
Knudsen (eds.), Fouling of heat transfer equipment, Hemisphere Publ. Co., Washington, D.C.
p251-291
Cho, J. Y., E-H. Kwon, J-S. Choi, S-Y. Hong, H-W. Shin, and Y-K. Hong. (2001) Antifouling
activity of seaweed extracts on the green alga Enteromorpha prolifera and the Mussel Mytilus
edulis. J. of App. Phycology. 13: 117-125.
Christie AO, Dalley R. (1987) Barnacle fouling and prevention. Crustacean Iss 5:419-433.
Claire AS (1998) Towards nontoxic antifouling. J Mar Biotechnol 6, 3–6
Costlow, J. D., Tipper, R. C. (eds.) Marine biodeterioration: an interdisciplinary study. Naval
Institute Press, Annapolis 103-126.
de Nys, R. & Steinberg, P. D. (1999) Role of secondary metabolites from algae and seagrasses
in biofouling control. In: Fingeman, M., Nagabhushanam, R. & Thompson, M. F. [Eds.] Recent
Advances in Marine Biotechnology, Volume 3, Biojilms, Bioadhesion, Corrosion and Biofouling,
Oxford and IBH Publishing Company Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 237.
De Rincon, OT; Morris, E; De Romero, M; Andrade, S. (2001) Effect of 'pelo de oso' (Garveia
franciscana) on different materials in Lake Maracaibo. NACE International, Corrosion/2001 pp.
15
Diers, J. A., J. J. Bowling, S. O. Duke, S. Wahyuono, M. Kelly, and M. T. Hamann. 2006. Zebra
Mussel antifouling activity of the marine natural product Aaptamine and Analogs. Marine
Biotech.. 8: 366-372.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Diggins, TP; Baier, RE; Meyer, AE; Forsberg, RL. (2002) Potential for Selective, Controlled
Biofouling by Dreissena Species to Intercept Pollutants from Industrial Effluents. Biofouling vol.
18, no. 1, pp. 29-36
Dobrevsky, I; Tsvetanova, Z; Varbanov, P; Dimitrov, D; Savcheva, G. (2000) A method of biofilm
monitoring in the recirculating cooling water system of a petroleum refinery plant. European
Federation of Corrosion Publications (UK), vol. 29, pp. 202-212;
Douglas-Helders, GM; Tan, C; Carson, J; Nowak, BF. (2003) Effects of copper-based
antifouling treatment on the presence of Neoparamoeba pemaquidensis Page, 1987 on nets
and gills of reared Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture Vol. 221, no. 1-4, pp. 13-22
de Nys, R., Leya, T., Maximilien, R., Afsar, A., Nair, P. S. R. & Steinberg, P. D. (1996) Thefor the
prevention of marine biofouling 11. Blue-green algae as potential producers of biogenic agents
for the growth inhibition of microfouling organisms. Bot. Mar. 42:459-65.
Eng-Wilmot, D. L., McCoy, L. F. & Martin, D. F. (1979) Isolation and synergis of a red tide
(Gymnodinium breve) cytolic factor(s) from cultures of Gomphosphaeria aponina. In Taylor, D.
L. & Seliger, H. H. [Eds.] Toxic dinoflagellate blooms. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 35560.
Evans SM (1999) Tributyltin pollution: the catastrophe that never happened. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 38: 629–636.
Faille, C; Dennin, L; Bellon-Fontaine, MN; Benezech, T. (1999) Cleanability of stainless steel
surfaces soiled by Bacillus thuringiensis spores under various flow conditions.Biofouling vol. 14,
no. 2, pp. 143-151
Fusetani N (2004) Biofouling and antifouling. Nat Prod Rep 21, 94–104
Gademann, K., (2007) Cyanobacteria natural products for the inhibition of biofilm formation and
biofouling. Chimia. 61(6): 373-377.
Gehrke, T; Sand, W. (2003) Interactions between microorganisms and physicochemical factors
cause mic of steel pilings in harbours. NACE International, Corrosion/2003 pp. 8
Geiger,T.,P. Delavy, R. Hany, J. Schleuniger, and M. Zinn. 2004. Encapsulated Zosteric Acid
Embedded in Poly [3-hydroxyalkanoate] Coatings - Protection against Biofouling. Polymer
Bulletin. 52: 65-72.
Gomez de Saravia, SG; Guiamet, PS; Videla, HA. (2001) Preventing biocorrosion without
damaging the environment. Four innovative strategies. Institute of Corrosion, Corrosion
Odyssey pp. 9
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Gomez de Saravia, SG; Guiamet, PS; Videla, HA. (2001) Preventing biocorrosion without
damaging the environment. Four innovative strategies. Institute of Corrosion, Corrosion
Odyssey pp. 9
Granhag LM, Finlay JA, Jonsson PR, Callow JA, Callow ME (2004) Roughness-dependent
removal of settled spores of the green alga Ulva (syn Enteromorpha) exposed to hydrodynamic
forces from a water jet. Biofouling 20, 117–122
Greenberg, T; Itzhak, D. (2002) Marine biofouling of titanium alloys in the coral reef
environment. Corrosion/2002; Denver, CO; USA; 7-11, 7 pp. 2002; Brown, Malcom, Jr.
1999. Atomic and Molecular Imaging of Adhesive Molecules. NASA no. 19990027847
Greenberg, T; Itzhak, D. (2002) Marine biofouling of titanium alloys in the coral reef
environment. Corrosion/2002; Denver, CO; USA; 7-11, 7 pp. 2002
Griebe, T; Flemming, HC. (2000) Biocide free antifouling strategy to protect RO-membrane
from biofouling (abstract only). Invest. Tec. Pap. vol. 37, no. 146, pp 676-677
Gross, E. M., Wolk, P. & Juttner, F. (1991) Fischerellin, a new allelochemical from the
freshwater cyanobacterium Fischerella muscicola. J. Phycol. 27:686-92.
Hirota, H., T. Okino, E. Yoshimura, and N. Fusetani. 1998. Five new antifouling Sesquiterpene
from two marine sponges of the genus Axinyssa and the Nudibranch Phyllida pustulosa.
Tetrahedron. 54: 13971-13980.
Hodson SL, Lewis TE, Burke CM. (1997) Biofouling of fish-cage netting: efficacy and problems
of in situ cleaning. Aquaculture 152:77-90.
Holmstroem, C; Egan, S; Franks, A; McCloy, S; Kjelleberg, S. (2002) Antifouling activities
expressed by marine surface associated Pseudoalteromonas species. FEMS Microbiology
Ecology Vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 47-58
Huguenin JE, Ansiuni FJ. (1981) Marine biofouling of synthetic and metallic screens.
Proceedings from Ocean 81 Conference. 16–18 September 1981, Boston, MA 545–549.
Huse I, Bjordal A, Ferno A, Furevik D. (1990) The effect of shading in pen rearing of Atlantic
salmon (Salmo salar). Aquacult Eng 9:235–244
Jelvestam, M; Edrud, S; Petronis, S; Gatenholm, P. (2003) Biomimetic materials with tailored
surface micro-architecture for prevention of marine biofouling. Surface and Interface
Analysis vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 168-173
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Kanagasabhapathy, M., H. Sasaki, K. Nakajima, K. Nagata, and S. Nagata. (2005) Inhibitory
activities of surface associated bacteria isolated from the marine sponge Pseudomonas
purpurea. Microbes and Environments. 20(3): 178-185.
Kelly, SR; Jensen, PR; Henkel, TP; Fenical, W; Pawlik, JR. (2003) Effects of Caribbean sponge
extracts on bacterial attachment. Aquatic Microbial Ecology Vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 175-182
Kem, WR; Soti, F; Rittschof, DAF. (2003) Inhibition of barnacle larval settlement and crustacean
toxicity of some hoplonemertine pyridyl alkaloids. Biomolecular Engineering Vol. 20, no. 4-6, pp.
355-361
Klassen, RD; Roberge, PR; Porter, J; Pelletier, G; Zwicker, B. (2001) On-board hypochlorite
generation for biofouling control. NACE International, Corrosion/2001 pp. 11, Mar. 2001
Kolari, M. (2003) Attachment mechanisms and properties of bacterial biofilms on non-living
surfaces. Dissertationes Biocentri Viikki Universitatis Helsingiensis 12, 129 pp
Kwong, T. F. N., L. Miao, X. Li, and P. Y. Qian. (2006) Novel antifouling and
antimicrobialcompound from a marine-derived fungus Ampelomyces sp. Marine Biotechnology.
8: 634-640.
Lackenby, H. (1962) The resistance to ships with special reference to skin friction and hull
surface condition. Thomas Lowe Gray Lecture. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 176:l-35.
Lewis, D P; Piontkowski, J M; Straney, R W; Knowlton, J J. (1997) Use of potassium for
treatment and control of zebra mussel infestation in industrial fire protection water systems. Fire
Technology 33 (4), p.356-71
Lewis, RJ; Johnson, LM; Hoagland, KD. 2002. Effects of cell density, temperature, and light
intensity on growth and stalk production in the biofouling diatom Achnanthes longipes
(Bacillariophyceae). Journal of Psychology Vol. 38, no. 6, pp.
Mackie, G. L., Lowery, P. & Cooper, C. (2000) Plasma Pulse Technology to Control Zebra
Mussel Biofouling. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS. Engineer
Research and Development Center, Report: ERDC-TN-ZMR-2-22.
Manov, D. V., Chang, G. C. & Dickey, T. D. (2004) Methods for reducing biofouling of moored
optical sensors. J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech. 21:958-68
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Moring JR, Moring KA. (1975) Succession of net biofouling material and its role in the diet of
pen-cultured Chinook salmon. Prog Fish-Cult 37:27–30.
Muralidharan, J; Jayachandran, S. (2003) Physicochemical analyses of the exopolysaccharides
produced by a marine biofouling bacterium, Vibrio alginolyticus.Process Biochemistry Vol. 38,
no. 6, pp. 841-847Alzieu C, (1998) Tributyltin: case study of a chronic contaminant in the
coastal environment. Ocean and Coastal Management, 40: 23–36
Murugan, A; Ramasamy, MS. (2003) Biofouling deterrent activity of the natural product from
ascidian, Distaplia nathensis. Indian journal of marine sciences, Vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 162-164
Murugan, A; Ramasamy, MS. (2003) Biofouling deterrent activity of the natural product from
ascidian, Distaplia nathensis. Indian journal of marine sciences, Vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 162-164
Nandakumar, K., Obika, H., Shinozaki, T., Ooie, T., Utsumi, A. $ Yano, T. (2003) Pulsed laser
irradiation impact on two marine diatoms Skeletonema costatum and Chetoceros gracilis.
Water Res. 37:23 1 1- 16.
Omae, I., 2006. General aspects of natural products antifoulants in the environment. Env.
Chem. 5: 227-262.
Panchal, CB; et al. (1984) Biofouling and Corrosion Studies at the Seacoast Test Facility in
Hawaii, DE84-014643; CONF-840930-1, 6 pp
Panchal, CB; et al. (1984) Biofouling and Corrosion Studies at the Seacoast Test Facility in
Hawaii, DE84-014643; CONF-840930-1, 6 pp
Patil JS, Kimoto H, Kimoto T, Saino T (2007) Ultraviolet radiation (UV-C): a potential tool for the
control of biofouling on marine optical instruments. Biofouling , 23(4): 215-230
Patil, J. S. & Anil, A. C. (2000) Epibiotic community of the horseshoe crab, Tachypleus gigas.
Mar. Biol. 136: 699-713.
Qi, S. H., Y. Xu, H. R. Xiong, P. Y. Qian, and S. Zhang. (2009) Antifouling and antibacterial
compounds from a marine fungus Cladosporium sp. F14. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 25:
399-406.
Railkin, 2004 A.I. Railkin, Marine Biofouling: Colonization Processes and Defenses, CRC
Press,Boca Raton, Fl, USA (2004) 303 pp.
Rolland, J. P. & DeSimone, J. M. (2003) Synthesis and characterization of perfluoropolyether
graft terpolymers for biofouling applications. Polym. Mat. Sci. Eng. 88:606-7.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Rolland, JP; DeSimone, JM.( 2003) Synthesis and characterization of perfluoropolyether graft
terpolymers for biofouling applications. Polymeric Materials Science and Engineering. vol. 88,
pp. 606-607
Selvin, J., and A. P. Lipton. (2004) Antifouling activity of bioactive substances extractedfrom
Holothuria scabra. Hydrobiologia. 513: 251-253.
Stein, J; Truby, K; Wood, CD; Takemori, M; Vallance, M; Swain, G; Kavanagh, C; Kovach, B;
Schultz, M; Wiebe, D. 2003. Structure--property relationships of silicone biofouling-release
coatings: effect of silicone network architecture on pseudobarnacle attachment
strengths. Biofouling 19, (2), 87-94
Stein, J; Truby, K; Wood, CD; Takemori, M; Vallance, M; Swain, G; Kavanagh, C; Kovach, B;
Schultz, M; Wiebe, D. (2003) Structure--property relationships of silicone biofouling-release
coatings: effect of silicone network architecture on pseudobarnacle attachment
strengths. Biofouling 19, (2), 87-94
Thakur, N. L. & Muller, W. E. G. (2004) Biotechnological potential of marine sponges. Curr. Sci.
86: 1506-12.
Thakur, N. L. (2001) Studies on some bioactivity aspects of selected marine organisms. PhD
thesis. Goa University.
Tsoukatou, M., J. P. Marechal, C. Hellio, I. Novakovic, S. Tufegdzic, D. Sladic, M. J.Gasic, A.S.
Clare, C. Vagias, and V. Roussis. (2007) Evaluation of the activity of the Sponge metabolites
Avarol and Avarone and their synthetic derivatives against fouling micro- and macroorganisms.
Molecules. 12: 1022-1034.
Vishwakiran Y, Anil AC, Venkat K, Sawant SS (2005) Gyrineum natator: A potential indicator of
imposex along the Indian coast. Chemosphere, 62: 1718-25.
Von Oertzen JA, Scharf EM, Arndt EA, Sandrock Dettmann L, Holzapfel H, Rlngstorf H, Kohn
H, Gunther (1989) Spezialstudie 'Alternative Antifouling Systeme' Fachbereich Biologie,
Universitat Rostock
Wahl M (1997) Living attached: aufwuchs, fouling, epibiosis. In: Fouling Organisms of the
Indian Ocean: Biology and Control Technology, Nagabhushanam R, Thompson M,eds. (New
Delhi: Oxford & IBH) pp 31–84
•
•
•
•
•
•
Walch, M., Mazzola, M. & Grothaus, M. (2000) Feasibility Demonstration of a Pulsed Acoustic
Device for Inhibition of Biofouling in Seawater Piping. Naval Surface Warfare Center Carderock
Div., Bethesda, MD, Report: NSWCCD-TR-2000/04.
Yang, L. H., L. Miao, O. O. Lee, X. Li, H. Xiong, K. L. Pang, L. Vrijmoed, and P. Y. Qian.(2007)
Effect of culture conditions on antifouling compound production of a sponge-associated fungus
Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 74: 1221-1231.
Yebra DM, Kiil S, Dam-Johansen K (2004) Antifoulingtechnology-past, present and future steps
towards efficient and environmentally friendly antifouling coatings. Prog Org Coat 50, 75–104
Younqlood, JP; Andruzzi, L; Senaratne, W; Ober, CK; Callow, JA; Finlay, JA; Callow, ME.
(2003) New materials for marine biofouling resistance and release: semi-fluorinated and
pegylated block copolymer bilayer coatings. Polymeric Materials Science and Engineering, vol.
88, pp. 608-609
Younqlood, JP; Andruzzi, L; Senaratne, W; Ober, CK; Callow, JA; Finlay, JA; Callow, ME.
(2003) New materials for marine biofouling resistance and release: semi-fluorinated and
pegylated block copolymer bilayer coatings. Polymeric Materials Science and Engineering, vol.
88, pp. 608-609
Zobell CE, Allen CE. (1935) The significance of marine bacteria in the fouling of submerged
surfaces. J Bacteriol 29:239-251.
Web Pages:
•
•
•
•
W1.http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/earth/stories/s24268.htm
(Australian Broadcasting Corporation, ABC Ultimo Centre, 700 Harris Street, Ultimo 2007, GPO
Box 9994, Sydney NSW 2001 Australia)
W2. http://journals.eecs.qub.ac.uk/RIA/ProcBI/1998/PB98I1/B98106a.html
http://www.dt.navy.mil/pao/excerpts%20pages/1999/biofouling4.html (Naval Surface Warfare
Center, Communications Division, Bldg 1 Rm 200M, 9500 MacArthur Boulevard, West
Bethesda, MD 20817-5700)
W3. http://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/enrc/default.htm
(Level 8, 35 Spring Street, Melbourne, Victoria 3000 Australia)
W4.URL
http://vortex.weather.brockport.edu/students/joek/introduction.htm (Department of Earth
Sciences, SUNY Brockport, 350 New Campus Drive, Brockport, NY 14420)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
W5. http://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/enrc/default.htm
(Level 8, 35 Spring Street, Melbourne, Victoria 3000 Australia)
W6.http://www.poseidonsciences.com/antifouling.html
The Chanin Building, Suite 2805, 122 East 42nd Street, New York, NY, USA 10168
W7.http://marine.copper.org/1-biofouling.html
(Copper Development Association Inc., 260 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016)
W8.http://www.timet.com/cor-p09.htm
(Titanium Metals Corporation, 1999 Broadway, Suite 4300, Denver CO 80202)
W9.http://www.scienceblog.com/community/article1341.html
(Science Blog)
W10.http://www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/explore/feat53.html
(The Cooperative Research Centre for the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, PO Box
772, Townsville 4810, Queensland Australia)
W11http://www.dt.navy.mil/pao/excerpts%20pages/1999/biofouling4.html
(Naval Surface Warfare Center, Communications Division, Bldg 1 Rm 200M, 9500