Transcript Separating Fact from Opinion

TEN STEPS TO
ADVANCING COLLEGE READING SKILLS
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Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
SIXTH EDITION
TEN STEPS
TO
ADVANCING
COLLEGE READING SKILLS
John Langan
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10
Critical Reading
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Skilled readers are those who can recognize an author’s
point and the support for that point.
Critical readers are those who can evaluate an author’s
support for a point and determine whether that support is
solid or not.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
This chapter will extend your ability to read critically in
three ways:
Separating fact from opinion
Detecting propaganda
Recognizing errors in reasoning
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
This personals ad appeared in a retirement community
newspaper in Florida.
FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4"
(used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried
fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts
including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy
chick who is still the life of the party.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
Which statements in this ad are facts? Which are opinions?
FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4"
(used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried
fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts
including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy
chick who is still the life of the party.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
Facts:
FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4"
(used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried
fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts
including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy
chick who is still the life of the party.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
Opinions:
FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4"
(used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried
fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts
including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy
chick who is still the life of the party.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4"
(used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried
fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts
including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy
chick who is still the life of the party.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
Fact
A fact is information that can be proved true
through objective evidence. This evidence
may be physical proof or the spoken or written
testimony of witnesses.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact
Facts:
FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4"
(used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried
fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts
including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy
chick who is still the life of the party.
These facts can be checked for accuracy and thus proved true.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact
Here is a statement that is a fact. The fact can be checked
for accuracy and thus proved true.
My grandfather has eleven toes.
Someone can check this fact by counting grandpa’s toes.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact
Here is another statement of fact:
In 1841, William Henry Harrison served as
president of the United States for only thirtyone days; he died of pneumonia.
We can check history records to confirm that this is true.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
Opinion
An opinion is a belief, judgment, or conclusion
that cannot be objectively proved true. As a
result, it is open to question.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
Opinions:
FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4"
(used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried
fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts
including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy
chick who is still the life of the party.
We have no way of knowing for sure if these descriptions
are true. These statements are opinions.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion
Here is a statement that is an opinion:
My grandfather’s feet are ugly.
There’s no way to prove this statement because two people
can look at the same thing and come to different conclusions
about its beauty.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion
My grandfather’s feet are ugly.
Ugly is a value word, a word we use to express a value
judgment. Value or judgment words are signals that an
opinion is being expressed. By their very nature, these
words represent opinions, not facts.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion
Here is another opinion:
Harrison should never have been elected president
in the first place.
Those who voted for him would not have agreed.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
Five Points about Fact and Opinion
1 Statements of fact may be found to be untrue.
Facts can turn out to be errors, not facts. It is not
unusual for evidence to show that a “fact” is not really
true. For example, it was once considered to be a fact
that the world was flat, but that “fact” turned out to be
an error.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
2 Value words (ones that contain a judgment) often
represent opinions.
Examples of Value Words
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
2 Value words
Value words often express judgments—they are
generally subjective, not objective. While factual
statements report on observed reality, subjective
statements interpret reality.
For example, the observation that it is raining outside
is an objective one. The statement that the weather is bad,
however, is subjective, an evaluation of reality. (Some
people—for example, farmers whose crops need water—
consider rain to be good weather.)
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
3 The words should and ought to often signal opinions.
Those words introduce what some people think should,
or ought to, be done. Other people may disagree.
Examples
Couples with young children should not be allowed
to divorce.
Parents who abuse their children ought to be put
in jail.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
4 Don’t mistake widely held opinions for facts.
Much information that sounds factual is really opinion.
A politician may claim that he fights for working-class
people, a statement that at first seems factual. But what is
meant by fights? If the politician’s voting record shows
that he voted “yes” on tax cuts for the wealthy and “no”
on raising the minimum wage, you might not agree that
he has working-class people’s interests at heart.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
5 Much of what we read and hear is a mixture of fact
and opinion.
Our job is to draw upon existing fact and opinion and
to arrive at an informed opinion. The reality is that most
of what matters in life is very complex and cannot be
separated into simple fact and opinion. Our challenge
always is to arrive at the best possible informed opinion.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
Fact and Opinion in Reading
The amount of fact and opinion in a piece of writing
varies, depending on the author’s purpose. For example,
textbooks, news articles and scientific reports, which are
written to inform readers, are supposed to be as factual as
possible. On the other hand, the main points of editorials,
political speeches, and advertisements—materials written
to persuade readers—are opinions. Such writings may
contain facts, but, in general, they are facts carefully
selected to back up the authors’ opinions.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion?
A. It is riskier for a woman to have a first child after age 40 than
before.
B. It is stupid for women over 40 to get pregnant.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact?
A. It is riskier for a woman to have a first child after age 40 than
before.
B. It is stupid for women over 40 to get pregnant.
Item A is a statement of fact. It can be verified by
checking medical statistics.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which is opinion?
A. It is riskier for a woman to have a first child after age 40 than
before.
B. It is stupid for women over 40 to get pregnant.
This is an opinion. Some people might admire the
woman who has children in her 40s. The word stupid
is a value word.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion?
Which is fact and opinion?
A. Among Americans aged 10 to 24, suicide is the third-leading
cause of death (after car accidents and homicides).
B. It’s a fact that parents and teachers must bear the responsibility
for not recognizing signs of teenage depression.
C. Each year, more than 1,600 American teenagers kill themselves,
and many of these deaths could be easily prevented.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact?
A. Among Americans aged 10 to 24, suicide is the third-leading
cause of death (after car accidents and homicides).
B. It’s a fact that parents and teachers must bear the responsibility
for not recognizing signs of teenage depression.
C. Each year, more than 1,600 American teenagers kill themselves,
and many of these deaths could be easily prevented.
All the details in statement A are facts that can be
confirmed by looking them up in public records.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which is opinion?
A. Among Americans aged 10 to 24, suicide is the third-leading
cause of death (after car accidents and homicides).
B. It’s a fact that parents and teachers must bear the responsibility
for not recognizing signs of teenage depression.
C. Each year, more than 1,600 American teenagers kill themselves,
and many of these deaths could be easily prevented.
Statement B is an opinion. Just saying that something is
a fact doesn’t make it so. Studies show that there are often
no warning signs of teenage depression. Even when there
are signs, the extent of adult responsibility is a matter of
opinion.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which is fact and opinion?
A. Among Americans aged 10 to 24, suicide is the third-leading
cause of death (after car accidents and homicides).
B. It’s a fact that parents and teachers must bear the responsibility
for not recognizing signs of teenage depression.
Each year, more than 1,600 American teenagers kill themselves,
and many of these deaths could be easily prevented.
The first part of the sentence is a fact that can be
confirmed by checking records on teen suicides. The
second part is an opinion: easily is a judgment word—
people may differ on how easy or difficult they consider
something to be.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians are
constantly promoting their points: “Buy our product,”
“Believe what I say,” and “Vote for me.”
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians are
constantly promoting their points: “Buy our product,”
“Believe what I say,” and “Vote for me.” Often, they
lack adequate factual support for their points, so they
appeal to our emotions by using propaganda
techniques.
Part of being a critical reader is having the ability to
recognize these propaganda techniques for the emotional
fluff that they are.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
This section will introduce you to six common
propaganda techniques:
Bandwagon
Plain Folks
Testimonial
Name Calling
Transfer
Glittering Generalities
There are other propaganda techniques, but these six
are among the most common. They all use emotional
appeals to distract from the fact they are not providing
solid evidence to support their points.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
1 Bandwagon
The bandwagon technique tells us to buy a product
or support a certain issue because, in effect, “everybody
else is doing it.”
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon
Here are two examples of real ads that have used the
bandwagon appeal:
A brand of soap used to advertise: “Aren’t you glad
you use our soap? Don’t you wish everybody did?”
A computer company advertises: “More than half of
the companies in North American rely on our
computers. Who do you rely on?”
The ads imply that if you don’t jump on the
bandwagon, the parade will pass you by.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon
Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal?
A. A magazine ad for Goodbuy Shoes shows a picture of the
glamorous movie star Lana Starr. The caption reads: “Why
should I spend more when I can get great shoes at Goodbuy?”
B. An ad for a car dealer shows cattle stampeding across the
plains, while the announcer exclaims, “Everybody is rushing to
Town Auto Mall!”
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon
Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal?
A. A magazine ad for Goodbuy Shoes shows a picture of the
glamorous movie star Lana Starr. The caption reads: “Why
should I spend more when I can get great shoes at Goodbuy?”
B. An ad for a car dealer shows cattle stampeding across the
plains, while the announcer exclaims, “Everybody is rushing to
Town Auto Mall!”
The car dealer wants us to “join the stampede” to
Town Auto Mall.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
2 Testimonial
The idea behind the testimonial approach is that the
testimony of famous people influences the viewers that
admire these people.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial
Here are two examples of real ads that have used
the appeal of testimonials:
“This yogurt can help regulate your digestive system
in just two weeks,” says a famous actress. “And it
tastes great.”
A former United States senator and one-time
candidate for president promotes a product
intended to help a man’s sexual performance.
The fame of the actress is intended to influence people
to buy the yogurt. Similarly, the prestige and power of the
senator is intended to make men feel this product will make
them powerful, too.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial
Which ad below uses a testimonial?
A. Become one of the millions of satisfied customers who control
their weight with our diet shakes.
B. A picture of boxing great Muhammad Ali appears on boxes of
a breakfast cereal.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial
Which ad below uses a testimonial?
A. Become one of the millions of satisfied customers who control
their weight with our diet shakes.
B. A picture of boxing great Muhammad Ali appears on boxes of
a breakfast cereal.
We are supposed to believe that Muhammad Ali
likes and recommends the cereal, and possibly even
that the cereal is responsible for Muhammad Ali’s
successes in the ring.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
3 Transfer
The most common type of propaganda technique is
transfer, in which products or candidates try to associate
themselves with something that people admire or love.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer
The picture you saw at the beginning of this section
is an example of transfer.
The candidate is hoping that the positive feelings we
have toward the sexy-looking beauty queen and the
patriotism stirred in us by the American flag and the
U.S.A. banner will be transferred to him and get us to
vote for him.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer
Here are two examples of real ads that have used
the appeal of tranfer:
An ad for a hair color product for men shows a
beautiful young woman in a short dress running her
fingers through a man’s hair.
A candidate for Congress is shown sitting at a desk.
Standing on either side of him are his wife and family,
and there is an American flag behind him.
The sponsor hopes men will feel that, if they use this
product, beautiful young women will be attracted to them.
Similarly, the candidate hopes we will transfer our positive
feelings about family and the American flag to him.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer
Which ad below uses transfer?
A. A man dressed as Uncle Sam is shown eating a particular brand
of hot dog.
B. A magazine ad shows a film star with a milk mustache. The
caption reads: “Drink Milk.”
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer
Which ad below uses transfer?
A. A man dressed as Uncle Sam is shown eating a particular brand
of hot dog.
B. A magazine ad shows a film star with a milk mustache. The
caption reads: “Drink Milk.”
The hot dog manufacturer wants Americans to
transfer the love they feel for their country to a
particular brand of hot dog.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
4 Plain Folks
In the plain folks technique, powerful people present
themselves as ordinary, average citizens. Political
candidates often use the plain folks technique. Similarly,
the presidents of some companies appear in their own ads,
trying to show that their giant corporations are just family
businesses run by ordinary folks.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks
Here are two examples of real ads that have used the
appeal of plain folks:
The chairman of a poultry company is shown leaning on a rail
fence in front of a farmhouse. He says, “I’m proud to uphold the
values that go back to our company’s start on my greatgrandfather’s farm in 1900.”
A presidential candidate is photographed barbecuing ribs and
chicken for reporters at his rustic home in the country. Afterward,
his wife posts their family recipes on the campaign website.
The chairman and the presidential candidate both
want to demonstrate that they are regular, everyday
people—just “plain folks” like the rest of us.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks
Which ad below uses a plain folks approach?
A. A beautiful woman in an elegant white dress and long white
gloves is shown sipping a glass of a certain brand of
chardonnay wine.
B. An average-looking middle-aged couple enjoys an outdoor
meal cooked on their new barbecue grill.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks
Which ad below uses a plain folks approach?
A. A beautiful woman in an elegant white dress and long white
gloves is shown sipping a glass of a certain brand of
chardonnay wine.
B. An average-looking middle-aged couple enjoys an outdoor
meal cooked on their new barbecue grill.
If the barbecue grill is favored by ordinary, average
citizens just like us, then we’ll like it too.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
5 Name Calling
Name calling is the use of emotionally loaded
language or negative comments to turn people against
a rival product, candidate, or movement.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling
Here are two examples of name calling taken from
real life:
The opponents of a political candidate say he is a
“spineless jellyfish.”
A cell phone service advertises: “Unlike some
services, we won’t rip you off with hidden charges or
drop your calls.”
Clearly the opponents are making negative comments
about the candidate. In the second item, saying that other cell
phone services will rip you off and drop your calls is making
negative comments about them.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling
Which ad below uses name calling?
A. A famous singer tells a television interviewer that a particular
candidate for president is “born to run.”
B. A newspaper editorial calls a candidate for town council “a
hypocrite and a greedy, ambulance-chasing lawyer.”
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling
Which ad below uses name calling?
A. A famous singer tells a television interviewer that a particular
candidate for president is “born to run.”
B. A newspaper editorial calls a candidate for town council “a
hypocrite and a greedy, ambulance-chasing lawyer.”
The editorial is making extremely negative comments
about the candidate—literally calling him or her names.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
6 Glittering Generalities
A glittering generality is an important-sounding but
unspecific claim about some product, candidate, or cause.
It cannot be proved true or false because no evidence is
offered to support the claim.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities
Here are two examples from real ads that use glittering
generalities:
A financial advisor says: “True wealth is about more
than money. It’s about achieving life.”
A magazine ad for a line of women’s clothing
advertises: “Let yourself shine.”
The statements It’s about achieving life and Let
yourself shine sound important but say nothing.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities
Which ad below uses a glittering generality?
A. An ad for a body wash invites the reader to “Shower your skin
in luxury.”
B. A candidate for the U.S. congress is called “Dr. Millionaire
Know- it-all” by his opponent.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities
Which ad below uses a glittering generality?
A. An ad for a body wash invites the reader to “Shower your skin
in luxury.”
B. A candidate for the U.S. congress is called “Dr. Millionaire
Know- it-all” by his opponent.
Other than hinting that the product should be used in
the shower, the statement tells us nothing specific about
the body wash.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
Fallacies are errors in reasoning that take the place
of the real support needed in an argument. The result is a
poorly supported argument.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
A valid point is based
on a rock-like foundation
of solid support.
A fallacious point is
based on a house of cards
that offers no real support
at all.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
You have already seen two common fallacies that were
discussed in Chapter 9, “Argument”:
Changing the subject distracts us from the issue
by presenting irrelevant support—evidence that
actually has nothing to do with the argument.
Hasty generalization is a fallacy in which a point
has inadequate support. To draw a conclusion
based on insufficient evidence is to make a hasty
generalization.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
This section will introduce you to six other common fallacies:
Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Circular Reasoning
Personal Attack
Straw Man
Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
False Cause
False Comparison
Either-Or
In all of these fallacies, a point is argued, but no true
support is offered for that point.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Circular Reasoning
Part of a point cannot reasonably be used as
evidence to support it. The fallacy of including such
illogical evidence is called circular reasoning; it is
also known as begging the question.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Here is a simple and obvious example of such reasoning:
Ms. Jenkins is a great manager because she is so
wonderful at managing.
The supporting reason (“she is so wonderful at
managing”) is really the same as the conclusion (“Ms.
Jenkins is a great manager”). No real reasons have been
given—the statement has merely been repeated.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Ms. Jenkins is a great manager
she is so wonderful at managing
The supporting reason (“she is so wonderful at
managing”) is really the same as the conclusion (“Ms.
Jenkins is a great manager”). No real reasons have been
given—the statement has merely been repeated.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Here is another example of such reasoning:
Exercise is healthful, for it improves your
well-being.
Can you spot the circular reasoning in this argument?
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Exercise is healthful, for it improves your
well-being.
The word healthful, which is used in the conclusion,
conveys the same idea as well-being. We still don’t know
why exercise is good for us.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Here is one more example of such reasoning:
Censorship is an evil practice because it is so wrong.
Can you spot the circular reasoning in this argument?
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Censorship is an evil practice because it is so wrong.
The claim that censorship “is so wrong” simply restates
the idea that it is an evil practice. No explanation is given
for why censorship is evil or wrong.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Which item contains an example of the circular reasoning fallacy?
A. Sports cars continue to be popular because so many people
like them.
B. My wife wants to participate in the local amateur theater group,
but I don’t want all those actors flirting with her.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Which item contains an example of the circular reasoning fallacy?
A. Sports cars continue to be popular because so many people
like them.
B. My wife wants to participate in the local amateur theater group,
but I don’t want all those actors flirting with her.
Saying that many people like sports cars is another way
of saying that sports cars are popular.
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CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Personal Attack
This fallacy involves an unfair personal attack on
an individual rather than on his or her public ideas. It
ignores the issue under discussion and concentrates
instead on the character of the opponent.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack
Here is an example of personal attack:
Our mayor’s opinions about local crime are
worthless. Last week, his own son was arrested for
disturbing the peace.
The arrest of his son would probably have embarrassed
the mayor, but it has nothing to do with the value of his
opinions on local crime.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack
Sometimes personal attacks take the form of undercutting
people’s admirable actions. For instance, in the 2000
Republican presidential primary, opponents of Senator
John McCain claimed that he had a black daughter
whom he had fathered with a black prostitute.
In fact, McCain and his wife had adopted the girl from an
orphanage in Bangladesh.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack
Which item contains an example of the personal attack fallacy?
A. Mr. Casey was fined for drinking while driving and should not
be allowed to teach math.
B. Barry cannot make up his mind easily because he is indecisive.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack
Which item contains an example of the personal attack fallacy?
A. Mr. Casey was fined for drinking while driving and should not
be allowed to teach math.
B. Barry cannot make up his mind easily because he is indecisive.
The statement attacks Casey for his poor judgment
about driving, not for his ability to teach math.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Straw Man
The straw man fallacy suggests that an opponent
favors an obviously unpopular cause—when the
opponent really doesn’t support anything of the kind.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Straw Man
Here is an example of straw man. It is a statement made
during a political debate between two candidates.
The candidate for mayor says she’ll cut taxes, but do
you really want fewer police officers protecting your
city?
The candidate does not support having “fewer police
officers.” Her plan calls for reducing taxes by privatizing
the city’s trash collection, not by reducing the police
force.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Straw Man
Which item contains an example of the straw man fallacy?
A. The school board is considering building a swimming pool,
but I don’t like the idea of kids hanging out there all day and
neglecting their studies.
B. Pearl is a poor choice for the position of salesperson—she’s a
lesbian.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Straw Man
Which item contains an example of the straw man fallacy?
A. The school board is considering building a swimming pool,
but I don’t like the idea of kids hanging out there all day and
neglecting their studies.
B. Pearl is a poor choice for the position of salesperson—she’s a
lesbian.
The school board is not advocating that kids hang out
all day and neglect their studies.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
False Cause
The fallacy of false cause occurs when one assumes
that because event B follows event A, event B was caused
by event A.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
Consider this argument:
The baseball team was doing well before Paul
Hamilton became manager. Clearly, he is the
cause of the decline.
Event A: Paul Hamilton became manager.
Event B: The baseball team is losing games.
However, Paul Hamilton has been manager for only a year.
What other possible causes could have been responsible for the
team’s losses?
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
The baseball team was doing well before Paul
Hamilton became manager. Clearly, he is the
cause of the decline.
Event A: Paul Hamilton became manager.
Event B: The baseball team is losing games.
Perhaps the salary policies of the team’s owner
have deprived the team of some needed new talent. Perhaps
several key players are now past their prime.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
The baseball team was doing well before Paul
Hamilton became manager. Clearly, he is the
cause of the decline.
Event A: Paul Hamilton became manager.
Event B: The baseball team is losing games.
It’s easy but dangerous to assume that just because
A came before B, A caused B.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false cause?
A. The waiter went off duty early, and then the vase was
discovered missing, so he must have stolen it.
B. In Vermont we leave our doors unlocked all year round, so I
don’t think it’s necessary for you New Yorkers to have three
locks on your front doors.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false cause?
A. The waiter went off duty early, and then the vase was
discovered missing, so he must have stolen it.
B. In Vermont we leave our doors unlocked all year round, so I
don’t think it’s necessary for you New Yorkers to have three
locks on your front doors.
The waiter going off duty does not indicate that he stole
the vase. He may have gone home sick.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
False Comparison
In the error in reasoning known as false comparison,
the assumption is that two things are more alike than they
really are.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
Consider this argument:
When your grandmother was your age, she was
already married and had four children. So why
aren’t you married?
To judge whether or not this is a false comparison,
consider how the two situations are alike and how they
differ.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
When your grandmother was your age, she was
already married and had four children. So why
aren’t you married?
They are similar in that both involve persons of the
same age.
But the situations are different in two respects: (1)
society, when the grandmother was young, encouraged
early marriage; (2) the grandmother was not working
outside the home or attending college.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
When your grandmother was your age, she was
already married and had four children. So why
aren’t you married?
The differences in this case are more important than
the similarities, making it a false comparison.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false comparison?
A. A week after a new building supervisor took over, the elevator
stopped working. What a lousy super he is!
B. All of my friends like my tattoo and pierced tongue, so I’m
sure my new boss will too.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false comparison?
A. A week after a new building supervisor took over, the elevator
stopped working. What a lousy super he is!
B. All of my friends like my tattoo and pierced tongue, so I’m
sure my new boss will too.
There probably are many differences between the
speaker’s friends and the speaker’s boss—including
differences in taste.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
Either-Or
It is often wrong to assume that there are only two
sides to a question. Offering only two choices when more
actually exist is an either-or fallacy. While some issues
have only two sides, most have several.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / Either-Or
Consider this argument:
People who support gun control want to take away
our rights.
This either-or argument ignores the fact that a person
can support gun control and believe that hunters and
others have the right to own guns. A person may want to
keep guns out of the hands of children and criminals. That
does not mean the person wants to take away the rights of
those who own guns for legitimate reasons.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / Either-Or
Which item contains an example of the either-or fallacy?
A. Why can’t we have a big dog in this apartment? You had a
Great Dane when you were growing up on the farm.
B. Eat your string beans, or you won’t grow up strong and
healthy.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / Either-Or
Which item contains an example of the either-or fallacy?
A. Why can’t we have a big dog in this apartment? You had a
Great Dane when you were growing up on the farm.
B. Eat your string beans, or you won’t grow up strong and
healthy.
There are other ways to grow up healthy and strong
besides eating one’s string beans.
Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading
Chapter Review
In this chapter, you learned that critical readers evaluate an author’s support for a
point and determine whether that support is solid or not. Critical reading includes
the following three abilities:
Separating fact from opinion. A fact is information that can be proved
true through objective evidence. An opinion is a belief, judgment, or
conclusion that cannot be proved objectively true. Much of what we read
is a mixture of fact and opinion, and our job as readers is to arrive at the
best possible informed opinion. Textbooks and other effective writing
provide informed opinion—opinion based upon factual information.
Detecting propaganda. Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians often
try to promote their points by appealing to our emotions rather than our
powers of reason. To do so, they practice six common propaganda
techniques: bandwagon, testimonial, transfer, plain folks, name calling,
and glittering generalities.
Recognizing errors in reasoning. Politicians and others are at times
guilty of errors in reasoning—fallacies—that take the place of the real
support needed in an argument. Such fallacies include circular reasoning,
personal attack, straw man, false cause, false comparison, and either-or.
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